• Computer Concepts
  • Examples Of Computers
  • Characteristics Of A Computer
  • Advantages Of Using A Computer
  • Disadvantages Of Using A Computer
  • Application Areas Of Computers
• Evolution Of Computers
  • Evolution Stage of Computers
  • Difference Engine And Analytical Engine
  • Contemporary Technology And Sustained Development Of Computers
• Generation Of Computers
  • Identifying Generations Of Computers
  • Characteristics Of Different Computer Generations
• Classification of Computers
  • Types Of Computers
  • Computer User Environment
  • Physical Parts Of a Computer
• Hands On Skills Concepts
  • Categories Of Keys Of A Computer Keyboard
• Computer System Overview
  • Functions Of A Computer Components
  • Importance of Computer Systems In The Society
• Computer Hardware Concepts
  • Functions Of Computer Hardware Categories
    • Input devices
    • CPU
    • Output devices
    • Ports and Cables
• Computer Setup

Computer Concepts

Definition

1. Computer
   An electronic device that accepts data from a user, Processes the data using given instructions, stores it and presents it in a desired format
2. Data
   Raw facts which include numbers, texts, images, audios or videos that input into a computer
3. Information
   Data that has been processed and made meaningful to the user

Examples Of Computers

1. Notebooks
2. Smartphones
3. Macbook
4. PDA
5. Desktop computer
6. Laptop
7. Ipad
8. Tablet
9. Smartwatch
10. Server
    • Each examples of computers have different features that enable them to serve different

Characteristics Of A Computer

1. Speed
   A computer works at a higher speed than human beings
2. Storage
   Computers have storage space that can hold large amounts of data and information
3. Multitasking
   Computers can perform more than one tasks at the same time
4. Accuracy
   Computers give information without errors if given the correct data and instructions
5. User dependant
   Computer cannot work without instructions from the user
6. Versatility
   Computers have ability to perform a variety of task(complex and simple)
7. Reliability
   The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate. The modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any problem and produces consistent (reliable) results.
8. Diligence
   Computers, unlike frail human beings, do not become bored or tired or lose concentration when performing highly repetitive work. If a computer has to perform a certain calculation on a million numbers, it will calculate the first and the last with equal diligence. This enables trust to be placed in the results generated by computers, and confidence to be replaced in their ability – neither of which can always be replaced in humans!

Function of a computer

1. Stores data and information
2. Process data into information using given instructions
3. Accepts data from the user
4. A computer gives out information to the user

Uses of computers to perform daily activities

1. Accessing internet
2. Paying online bills
3. Home/school tutoring
4. Stock taking
5.  
6.  

Stages of computer processing cycle

Computer processing cycle is the stage or events that takes place from the time data is entered into the computer to the time is given to the user.

Model of a computer

Advantages Of Using A Computer

1. Computer process data faster than human beings
2. Computers keep data and information secure
3. Computers can store a lot of data in a small physical space
4. Computer can do the same repeatedly without getting tires or bored
5. Computer are able to perform different types of jobs at the same time
6. A computer is reliable because it consistently does what it is supposed to do.
7. Computers have a very big storage capacity and can store data and information for a very long time
8. Information given by computers after processing has no error because they work under instructions and are always accurate

Disadvantages Of Using A Computer

1. Use of computer has caused people to lose jobs because computers process data within a shorter time
2. Use of computers for long hours leads to health problem like headaches, eye strains
3. Computer lack intelligence. They cannot determine what is wrong or right. If given wrong data, they give out wrong information
4. People sometimes become too dependent on computers. This affects their creativity and ability to do simple tasks
5. Information and data stored in computers is at risk of theft and misuse
6. People use the internet to perform online crimes and fraud
7. Online threats such as cyber bulling are on the increase with the increased use of computers and the internet
8. Electronic waste from computers contains chemicals that destroy the environment

Application Areas Of Computers

1. Education
   
   1. For online reading
   2. To maintain class notes and registers
   3. For research and to do assignments
2. Business
   
   1. To make payments
   2. To keep records
   3. To order for goods
   4. To sell goods and services online
3. Banking
   
   1. To facilitate online and internet banking
   2. To operate ATM machines
   3. For money transfer from one bank to another
   4. To keep account and customer information
4. Health care
   
   1. To conduct research
   2. To store patient data
5. Manufacturing
   
   1. To model and design products for example airplane
   2. To test functionality of machines they are manufactured
   3. To automatic process in manufacturing companies
   4.  
6. Government
   
   1. To offer government services online through platforms such as Nemis and ecitizen
   2. To store data and information
7. Communication
   
   1. To send and receive messages
   2. For making video and voice calls
8. Engineering design
   
   1. To design houses, roads and buildings.
      Engineers and designers use programmes like computer aided design for designing
9. Marketing
   
   1. Marketing of goods and services
   2. To design and create marketing content
10. Insurance
    
    1. Computers are used to keep records about customers
    2. Computers are used to manage money transactions
11. Home
    
    1. For entertainment like watching movies
    2. For security purpose like storing and displaying data from CCTV cameras

Evolution Of Computers

Evolution Stages Of Computers

Computers have evolved from the abacus to digital devices

1. The Abacus
   It is believed to have been invented 4000years ago
   It was made of a wooden frame with rods fitted across, with round beeads that slide along the rod
2. Mechanical devices
   Napier’s bones – 1617
   Pascaline or pascal’s calculator – 1642
   Stepped reckoer 1671-1674
   Jacquard loom 1801-1804
   Difference engine 1820-1822
   Analytical engine 1834-1838
3. Electromechanical devices
   Tabulating machine 1880-1888
   Atanasoff – berry computer ABC 1937-1942
   Mark 1 – 1937 1944
4. Electronic digital computers
   Digital computers are now classified into five generations with each having improved from the previous one

Tasks performed by computers at different evolution stages

Difference Engine And Analytical Engine

• The difference engine and the analytical engine were designed by Charles Babbage.
• The difference engine was a simple calculator
• When he was unable to complete the difference engine, he started on the analytical engine which was advancement of the difference engine

Difference between the difference engine and the analytical engine

Using computer that existed at different evolution stages

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Contemporary Technology And Sustained Development Of Computers

Generation Of Computers

Computer technology has been advancing in many ways since the invention of the first electronic digital computer

Identifying Generations Of Computers

1. 1ST generation 1940-1956
2. 2nd generation 1956-1963
3. 3rd generation 1964-1971
4. 4th generation 1971-1980
5. 5th generation 1980 – present and beyond

Characteristics Of Different Computer Generations

1. Characteristics of 1ST generation computers 1940-1956
   
   • Entered data using punched cards, paper tape and magnetic tape
   • Produced information in form of print outs
   • Were very expensive
   • Were very large in size
   • Used alot of power
   • Produced a lot of heat
   • Were very slow
     Examples
     ENIA, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM 701, 1BM 750
2. Characteristics of 2ND generation computers
   • Increased data processing speed
   • Were very expensive to buy
   • Were more reliable as compared to the first generation
   • Consumed less power
   • Were smaller in size compared to the first generation
   • Used punched cards to enter data
     Examples
     IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, UNIVAC 1108
3. Characteristics of 3RD generation computers
   • Had faster processing speed than the previous generation
   • Consumed less power and emitted less heat as compared to the other generation
   • Became relatively cheaper and therefore available for commercial use
   • Were smaller in size than the second generation
   • Had larger storage for data
   • Used a mouse and keyboard to enter data
   • Were more accurate
     Example
     IB 360 SERIES, PDP, IBM 370 SERIES
4. Characteristics of 4TH generation computers
   • Were vry fast and more reliable
   • Were cheap and more easily available
   • Were much smaller in size and therefore portable
   • Introduced the use of personal computers
   • Were able to connect to the internet
   • Had very to large storage up to several hundred megabytes
   • Used a keyboard and a mouse to enter data
   • Used screens and printers to five information
   • Produced less heat and could be cooled using a fan
     Examples
     IBM 308 AND 4300 SERIES, STAR 1000, APPLE II CRAY
5. Characteristics of 5TH generation computers
   • Have very large storage capacity
   • Can use more than one processor at the same time
   • Can perform more than one task at the same time
   • Are cheaper and readily available even for personal use
   • Are much faster than other generation computers
   • Led to development of AI artificial intelligence
   • Are easier to use
     Examples
     Desktop
     Laptop
     Tablets

Applying technologies of different computer generations in daily life

Computer generation	Computer Technology used
First generation	Vacuum tubes	These computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called vacuum tubes They were used for storage, calculations and control
Second generation	Transistors	2nd generation computers used smaller components called transistors They allowed the use of words in specifying instructions
Third generation	Integhrated circuits	The 3rd generation used IC technology which is a single device containing many transistors
Fourth generation	Very large scale integration	During the 4th generation LSI and VLSI technology was used to pack thousands or millions of transistors on a single device
Fifth generation	Ultra large scale integration	The 5th generation of computers is based on ULSI. Millions of transistors are packed into one small device This has enabled the rise in the use of AI

Classification Of Computers

Types Of Computers

There are different types of computers used different purpose

1. Mini computers
2. Mainframe computers
3. Analogue computers
4. Hybrid computers
5. Special purpose computers
6. Micro computers
7. Super computers
8. Digital computers
9. General purpose computers

Analogue Computers:
The word "Analogue" means continuously varying in quantity. The analogue computers accept input data in continuous form and output is obtained in the form of graphs. It means that these computers accept input and give output in the form of analogue signals. The output is measured on a scale. The voltage, current, sound, speed, temperature, pressure etc. values are examples of analogue data. These values continuously increase and decrease. The analogue computers are used to measure the continuous values. The thermometer is an example of analogue device because it measures continuously the length of a mercury column.

Digital Computers:
The word "Digital" means discrete. It refers to binary system, which consists of only two digits, i.e. 0 and 1. Digital data consists of binary data represented by OFF (low) and ON (high) electrical pulses. These pulses are increased and decreased in discontinuous form rather than in continuous form.

Hybrid Computers:
The hybrid computers have best features of both analogue and digital computers. These computers contain both the digital and analogue components. In hybrid computers, the users can process both the continuous (analogue) and discrete (digital) data. These are special purpose computers. These are very fast and accurate. These are used in scientific fields. In
hospitals, these are used to watch patient's health condition in ICU (Intensive Care Unit). These are also used in telemetry, spaceships, missiles etc.

Supercomputer
Is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive

Mainframe computer
Are large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than mainframe.

Mini computer
Are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost than mainframe

Microcomputers
Are known as personal computers or simply PCs
Are meant for personal use by single users eg laptop, PDA

Special purpose computer
Computers designed to carry out specific tasks eg ATM

General purpose computer
Computers that can perform most common tasks eg word processing

Criteria used to classify computers

Appropriate computers to use in different situations

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Use of embedded computers in daily life

An embedded computer is a computer designed to perform a specific function
Embedded computers are used in different devices for example

1. ATM machines have a computer that facilitates withdrawal of money, cash deposit and checking bank balance
2. Cars have computer system to control the realises of airbags when a sensor detects an accident
   Embedded computers also sense when one applies emergency brakes and prevent the wheels of the vehicle from locking and skidding through antilock braking system
3. Microwaves have a computer that commands the heating element to turn on and off.
   It calculates time, display time and rotates the plate
4. Mp3 and DVD players are able to store, read data and play music and videos
5. Drones have computers that enable user to control them.
   The computers in drones enable them to capture images and videos and transmit them to the users
6. Digital watches have computers to display time in numbers and set an alarm clock

Using different types of computers in performing tasks
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Computer User Environment

Computer user environment is an area equipped with devices, facilities and other components that provide suitable conditions for the use of computers

Examples are cyber cafe and computer laboratories

Factors to consider when setting up a computer user environment

1. Accessibility
   Computer user environment should be set up in a place where the intended user can easily reach
2. Good lighting
   The room should be well it
3. Ventilation
   The environment should be well ventilated, have free circulation of air and be free from heat, dust and moisture which can damage a computer system
4. Power source
   A computer user environment should have a reliable source of power to prevent loss of data and damage of computers
5. Space
   The floor space should allow free movement of people using the computer user environment
6. Security
   A computer user environment should be secure with strong doors and windows.
   It should also have system in place to prevent unauthorised access
7. Fire fighting equipment
   Should be available at all times in case of a fire
8. User friendly
   The computer user environment should be made user friendly by ensuring there is comfortable furniture
9. Proper cabling
   Should be done from the power sources to the devices
   The cable must be insulated and laid away from busy areas of the room to prevent people from getting electrocuted or tripping

Resources for setting up a computer user environment

When setting up a computer user environment, you need

1. Desks and chairs
2. Computer system
3. Extension cards and electrical cables
4. Good lighting
5. Printers
6. Scanner
7. Projector
8. UPS

Safety precautions and practise in the computer user environment

1. Do not eat or drink in a computer user environment
2. Do not touch naked wires
3. Only allow authorised people. Avoid welcoming strangers
4. Organise your desks before leaving
5. Enter and exit quietly from the computer user environment
6. Do not rush or push each other
7. Avoid carrying pointed objects near computers
8. Remove shoes entry to minimise dust
9. Always follow the proper procedure for starring and shutting down the computer to avoid loss of data

Emerging trends in computer user environment

• Introduction of smartphones and small portable computers has made it easier for people to access computer services
• This means that the computer user environment is no longer confined within walls. It goes where a person has access to a computing device goes
• Mobile phone companies have made connectivity easy by availing network services to the people. This made it easy to access computer services anywhere at any time

Physical Parts Of A Computer

What are the physical parts of a computer?

Functions of the physical part of a computer

1. Monitor
   
   • Used to displaying information for example pictures and text
2. Keyboard
   
   • Used for typing and giving instructions to the computer
3. The system unit
   
   • Contains the devices oof a computer that Process data and gives information such as CPU
4. Speakers and headphones
   
   • Are used for listening to music and audio files
5. Printer
   
   • Is used for printing text on paper
6. Mouse
   
   • Is used for selecting items and giving instructions to the computer by clicking
7. Flash disks
   
   • Is used for storing and transferring information
8. Scanner
   
   • Is used to take images of paper documents and displaying them on a computer
9. Cables
   
   • Are used to connect different parts of a computer

Connecting the physical parts of the computer

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How to minimise wastage in computer usage

• We can reuse or recycle the physical parts of a computer
  For example

1. If a device is in good working condition but longer in use it can be sold for some money to someone who will reuse it
   Such devices can also be donated to people who need them
2. A computer monitor can also be used as a television screen with little modification
3. We can transform a system unit to a lockable cabinet by removing the inside components and installing a lock.
4. Physical parts of a computer can be used to make art for example the keys of the keyboard
5. The physical parts of a computer can be sent to the manufacturer or sent to a recycling centre where they are taken apart, their components sorted and recycled.

Interacting with physical parts of a computer
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Hands On Skills Concepts

Starting a computer

1. Switch on the power source
2. Press the power button of the monitor then press the power button of the system unit to start your computer
   Wait for the computer to finish the booting process
3. Click on your user account. Type your username, enter your password and press enter to sign in to the computer

Shutting down a computer

1. Close all the programs that may still be running
2. Click on the start button and select the power button
3. Click the power button. A window showing power option will appear
4. Click shut down for the computer to undergo the shut down process

Function of the keys on a computer keyboard

1. Delete (Del) key. It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
2. Esc
3. Home
4. Pg up
5. Pg dn
6. End
7. Backspace key - It has a backward arrow ( ) marked on it.√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the same line). When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate letter or number to the left is erased.
8. Crtl
9. Tab
10. Caps lock
11. Enter
12. Shift

A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the next character to be typed will appear.

Categories Of Keys Of A Computer Keyboard

Alphanumeric keys

Keys are labeled with alphabetic letters A-Z, numbers arranged in a line 1,2, ……..0 respectively and symbols like:?,], % etc. This group also includes the following keys: cap lock, enter tab. space bar and backspace.

Caps lock key: Pressing this key let's the user type in upper case-letters,(capitals) To switch back to lower case letters simply press the same key again.
Enter key (return key): Pressing this key forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line. A cursor is a blinking underscore (-) or a vertical beam (I) that shows where, the next character to be typed will appear. The enter key is also used to instruct .the computer to execute a command that has been selected on the screen.
Tab key: This key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line e.g. 10 mm, 20 mm etc.
The space bar: This bar creates a space between words during typing.
The backspace key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line.

Function keys

Function keys are usually located along the top of the keyboard. They are labeled FI, F2 up to FI2. They are used for tasks that occur frequently in various programs. For example pressing FI key in J most programs starts the HELP MENU.

Navigation and and editing keys - Cursor movement

Cursor movement keys are used to move the cursor on the screen. These keys are:

Arrow keys: Pressing the right or left arrow key moves the cursor one character to right or left respectively. Pressing the upward or downward arrow key moves the text cursor one line up or down respectively.
Page up and page down keys: Pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages. Pressing page down key moves the cursor down one page in case the document has many pages.
Home and end keys: Pressing home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line. Pressing end key moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position.
Delete (Del) key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to right.

Special PC operation keys.

These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys to give special instructions to the computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT and ESC keys.

Numeric keypad keys

The numeric keypad consists of a set of numbers 0 to 9 and the arithmetic signs like + (addition), ¬ (minus), * (multiplication) and / (division). They are located on the right hand side of the keyboard. The keypad is meant to help the user to rapidly enter numeric data. The numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when the, situated on the numeric keypad, is turned on.

Use of pointing devices in a computer

• Most computers use a mouse as the main pointing devices.
• Laptops use a trackpad
• Other pointing devices that can be used with a computer are
  
  1. Trackball
  2. Pointing stick
  3. Joystick
  4. stylus

There are 5 common pointing devices operations
Clicking: This means pressing and releasing the left mouse button once. A click often selects an object.
Double clicking: This means pressing the left button twice in quick succession. Double clicking usually opens a file or starts a program
Right clicking: Pressing the right hand side mouse button once displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This list of commands is called a shortcut menu or context sensitive menu. It is called a context sensitive menu because the commands on it apply to the right clicked item.
Drag and drop: This is whereby the user drags an item from one location on the screen to another. The procedure to accomplish this operation is as follows:

1. Point to the item you want to drag.
2. Press the left hand side mouse button and hold it down
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen.
4. Finally release the mouse button and the item will be dropped in the new location.

Scrolling – the sliding movement of images, videos or text across a display screen either vertically or horizontally

Interacting with the keyboard and pointing devices of a computer
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Computer System Overview

A system – is a set of things working together to achieve a common goal or objective
A computer system – is a collection of parts that work together to receive, process, manage and present data and information

Identification of computer system components

The computer system consist of 3 components

1. hardware
   These are physical components of a computer system that you can touch
   Examples: keyboard, mouse, monitor, CPU
2. software
   These are a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do during processing.
   They include operating system and programs like MS WORD, MS EXCEL
3. liveware of peopleware
   These are the users who command or direct computers to perform given task
   This term also refers to the people that develop the software and hardware components of a computer

Functions Of A Computer Components

1. computer hardware
   
   • accepts data and instructions
   • process data
   • stores data
   • produces information
   • communicates with devices and users
2. computer software
   
   • manages computer resources
   • provides computer interface
   • stores and retrieves data and instructions
   • does mathematical calculation
   • liveware
   • designs and develops software and hardware
   • operates a computer system
   • enters data
   • controls computer environment

Using computer system components

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Linkage among components of a computer system

• The liverware uses hardware components to input data and give instructions to software
• The software in turn process the data and executes the instructions then gives the information through hardware.
• The information is then used by the liveware for decision making or fed back into the computer as data

Importance Of Computer Systems In The Society

1. Business
   Computer systems have enabled efficiency in record keeping, allowing long process to take a shorter time through automation.
   They have also brought about online advertisement and sales using the internet
2. Communication
   Computers are connected through networks allowing for faster cheaper and safer communication across the globe
3. Shopping
   People today can shop online for goods and services and pay for them using online channels enabled by computer systems
4. Socialising
   Computer systems have made it possible for people to socialise and conduct viral meetings through various social media platforms
5. Employment
   Computer systems have provided employment opportunities
   Eg software development and design
6. Entertainment
   People can access a variety of music, films and computer games on their computers
7. Education
   The internet is a huge information resources that is easily accessible compared to textbooks.
   Learners are also able to learn online without the need to attend classes physically

Computer Hardware Concepts

Categories of hardware in a computer system

Computer hardware components are classified as

1. Input devices
2. Output devices
3. CPU
4. Storage devices

Functions Of Computer Hardware Categories

1. Input devices
   Enables user to enter data that needs processing and the instructions on how to process it
   Examples: mouse, keyboard, touchpad, light pen, joystick, scanner, microphone
2. CPU
   Process the data entered into a computer according to the instructions
3. Output devices
   Present information that has been processed in different forms for example text, sound and pictures
   Examples of output devices: monitor, printer, speakers, projector, plotter, headphones
4. Storage devices
   Saves data, information, computer software and running operations
   Examples: hard disk, memory card, flash disk

Selecting appropriate hardware for different situations

Consider

1. Reliability
2. Cost
3.  
4.  
5.  

Using different elements of computer hardware

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Input Devices

Enables user to enter data that needs processing and the instructions on how to process it

Input devices in a computer system

Examples: mouse, keyboard, touchpad, light pen, joystick, scanner, microphone, barcode scanner, digital camera, capacitive and infra-red touch screens, 2D and 3D scanners

Categories of input devices

Selecting appropriate input devices for different situations

When selecting input devices you can consider the following factors

1. User needs
   The device should meet the need of the user
2. Cost
   The device should be affordable according to user’s budget
3. Functionality
   Devices should serve the purpose it was intended
4. User friendliness
   The device should be easy to use
5. Compatibility with hardware
   Devices selected should be able to connect and work together with other available devices in the computer
6. Level of expertise
   Devices selected should meet the technical skills of the user.

Using input devices to perform tasks

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Reusing input devices to minimise wastage

Input devices which are still functional can be used in the following ways

1. Old and functional keyboards can be sold or donated to be reused with other compatible computer system
2. Input devices which are in good condition and not in use can be donated to people who need them in the community
3. Functional computer inputs can be used to set up other computers
4. Obsolete and dysfunctional input devices can be sent to recycling facility where they will be recycled to make new products.

Central Processing Unit

The CPU is the part of a computer that process data

Locating the CPU in a computer system

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NB
Motherboard is a frame which holds and allows communication between the components of the computer system
The CPU is located on the motherboard

Functional elements of the CPU in a computer system

The CPU performs all types of data processing operations in a computer system
CPU has 3 components

1. Control unit
2. Arithmetic logic unit
3. Special memory
   Arithmetic and logic unit – ALU
   Performs calculations like addition and subtraction
   It also performs logical operations which mainly involve comparison of data

Control unit
Coordinates movement of data between the processor and the memory

Special memory
Stores data and information required during processing.
Most of the CPU operations are performed by the ALU
The control unit moves data between the ALU and the special memory and also tell the ALU what to do.
The ALU then process data and store the result in a special memory

Types of processors in computing devices

There are 6 types of CPU
CPUs are classified according to the number of cores they have
The core of a CPU receives instructions and perform calculations, or operations to satisfy the received instructions

Performing tasks using computers with different processors

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• Processors receive input data, process it and generates results.
• It computes data and receives instructions in almost all actins carried out in a computer.
• Processors determines the speed with which a computing device processes information
• Computers with fast processors have high processing power and often give information faster

Output Devices

Present information that has been processed in different forms for example graphics, tactile or text, sound (audio), video and pictures

Output devices of a computer system

Monitor, printer, speakers, projector, plotter, headphones, Braille embosser

Functions of output devices in a computer system

1. Monitor
   Display data in text and graphics
2. Speakers
   Gives information in form of sound
3. Headphones
   Produce audio information
4. Printers
   Produce text or picture information on a paper
5. Projectors
   Gives visual information by projecting it on a flat smooth surface like a wall or white board
6. Plotters
   Produces digital created graphics and drawings
   Plotters use a pen to draw lines on paper
7. Actuator
   A part of a device or machine that helps to create physical movement using signals from a computer
8. Braille embosser
   A device that presses dots onto paper for people with visual impairment to read using their fingers

Categories of computer output devices

NB

• Hardcopy refers to data printed out on paper
  It could be text, photographs, illustrations or any data that can be printed

• Soft copy is information stored and displayed in a computer

Selecting appropriate out devices
Factors that you consider when selecting output devices are

1. Output quality
2. User friendliness
3. User needs
4. Suitability to the function it is supposed to carry out
5. Compatibility with the available devices
6. The cost of purchasing and maintaining the output devices

Uses of output devices
We care and use output devices safely by

1. Keeping the devices away from water and dust
2. Avoiding exposure to foods and fluids
3. Always powering off the devices after use
4. Connecting only with compatible devices
5. Cleaning and servicing the devices regularly
6. Ensuring secure connection of the devices before use

Technological trends in development of output devices

Output devices have constantly been replace with new devices due to improved technology from innovators
Technological trends enables fast evolution of output devices which suit user needs better, are cost effective, friendly to the environment, secure and able to multitask

• Computer displays which are used to create clear, high quality, digital displays
• Wireless speakers and headphones which are more portable, have noise cancelling capability and produce better sound quality
• Better Braille embossers that give better quality Braille while producing very little noise. They also recognise speech and give speech feedback, making them user friendly
• Printers which produce better quality hardcopies, can be secured using passwords, are compact, cost effective and easy to use

Ports And Cables

Port
A physical slot of a computer through which peripheral devices are connected.
All input and output devices of a computer are connected on the ports

Cable
A chord that connects and enables transfer of data or power from one device to another

A computing system has ports and cables that enable communication between the differebt components of a computer

Identifying cables and ports
Pupil’s activity
Page 97

Types of cables and ports used in a computer

There are 2 types of cables

1. Power cables
   These allow for power transmission and distribution from the source to all computer hardware components
2. Data cables
   These carry data and allows for communication between devices in a computing system

Relate cables to their corresponding ports in a computer
Pupil’s activity
Page 100

Connecting cables to their corresponding ports
Pupil’s activity
Page 101-102

NB

• Ports enable the connection of output and input devices to a
• Ports allow computers to connect to networks

Computer Setup

Setting up a computer is connecting all the hardware devices and preparing software programmes for a computer to function properly.

Problems experienced when setting up computers

1. lack of skills in setting up computers
2. difficulty matching cables to their respective ports
3. inability to identify and correct failed connections
4. lack of skills in installing operating systems
5. lack of reliable power source to power devices
6. damaged or broken cable pins due to improper fixing
   eg forcing a cable to a wrong port
7. damaged hardware devices that do not work
8. computer and monitor not turning on due to faulty power cables or improper fixing of cables to the power supply

How to set up a computer

1. setting up a new computer
2. setting up a laptop

Pupil’s activity
Page 104-106

Setting up computers

The following are tools and equipments need for computer set up

1. system unit
2. Monitor
3. Screwdriver
4. Speakers
5. Cables
6. UPS
7. Keyboard
8. Power tester
9. Surge protector
10. Mouse
11. Power extension cables

Some ways of ensuring safety when setting up computers include

1. Ensure there is a stable power supply that can power on a computer before the connection
2. Use a UPS or surge protector for power connection to the CPU and monitor
3. Make sure your hands are completely dry to avoid electric shock and damaging any computer parts with moisture
4. Handle all the parts of a computer with care. Place each component carefully on a hard flat surface. Be careful not to drop any parts
5. Ensure your computer has enough room to allow for proper ventilation. If there is no free flow of air the computer can be damaged or cause fire.
6. Be sure to connect all cables to the appropriate ports
7. If a cable does not connect easily to a port, don’t forcefully push it in to avoid damaging it. Check that you are connecting it to the right port and that the pins and holes align
8. Manage cables properly when setting up a computer. Ensure nothing is pressing on them and that they are not located in a place where they can be stepped on or tripped over
9. Do not spill foods or liquids on the computer
10. Always switch on the monitor before the CPU to display any errors or messages while booting

Setting up computers for use
Pupil’s activity
Page 109

Overcoming challenges experienced when setting up a computer

1. Researching and learning how to set up a computer properly
2. Researching and learning how to match cables to their respective parts checking that all connections are properly made
3. Replacing or repairing damaged parts
4. Ensuring that there is a reliable source of power
5. Observing safety precautions when setting up a computer

Practising booting computers

• To tell that a computer is properly setup, we must switch it on and see if all the components are working well. This process is called booting up a computer
• The steps of booting a computer are as follows
  
  1. Switch on the main power supply on the socket
  2. If the computer is connected to the UPS, switch its power button on.
  3. Switch on the monitor by pressing the power button
  4. Switch on the system unit by pressing the power button
  5. Upon switching the system unit on , the computer performs a power on self test where the computer checks hat al components are connected and functioning well
  6. The computer then displays the name of the operating system followed by a display of icons on the computer monitor

• Off Season Cropping Techniques
  • Technologies For Off Season Cropping
  • Off Season Production Techniques
• Value Addition Techniques
  • Importance Of Addition On Crop Produce (explained)

Off Season Cropping Techniques

Off season cultivation refers to the production outside of their typical cropping cycle.
The main objective of off season cultivation is to produce and supply to the market during their lean period.

Importance/Advantages of off season cropping

• It helps in the more effective and efficient use of land and farm resources.
• The per-unit result of off-season planting is excellent.
• Consumers nowadays prefer fresh veggies even when they are not in season, and off-season vegetable cultivation can meet this need.
• It is sometimes feasible to gain foreign exchange by exporting fresh veggies.
• It is a great source of preventive food that also contributes to nutritional security.
• It's a good choice for seed production.

Technologies For Off Season Cropping

1. Drip irrigation
   Crop yields can increase through improved water and fertility management and reduced disease and weed pressure. When drip irrigation is used with polyethylene mulch, yields can increase even further.
   These benefits are only possible when a drip irrigation system is properly designed, managed, and maintained.
   
   Advantages of drip irrigation
   
   • Lower-volume water sources can be used because trickle irrigation may require less than half of the water needed for sprinkler irrigation.
   • Lower operating pressures mean reduced energy costs for pumping.
   • High levels of water-use efficiency are achieved because plants can be supplied with more precise amounts of water.
   • Disease pressure may be less because plant foliage remains dry.
   • Labor and operating costs are generally less, and extensive automation is possible.
   • Water applications are made directly to the plant root zone. No applications are made between rows or other nonproductive areas, resulting in better weed control and significant water savings.
   • Field operations, such as harvesting, can continue during irrigation because the areas between rows remain dry.
   • Fertilizers can be applied efficiently through the drip system.
   • Irrigation can be done under a wide range of field conditions.
   • Compared to sprinkler irrigation, soil erosion and nutrient leaching can be reduced.
2. Container gardening
   The following crops best suited for container/pot gardening;
   • Beans
   • Beets
   • Tomatoes
   • Cucumber
   • Onions
   • Peas
   • Radish
   • Carrots
   • Potatoes
   • Squach
   • Brinjal(Eggplant)
   • Ladies Finger (okra)
   • Capsicum/Pepper/ Green Chilies
   • Leafy vegetables such as lettuce, Kale, Methi(Fenugreek), Coriander (cilantro)
     
     Factors to consider when establishing framed suspended gardening for off season crops
     
     • Can it be established along pathways
     • Can it enhance beauty
     • Can it grow within a short period of time (not a perennial crop)?
     • Is there space for the containers
     • Mechanisms put in place to manage pests and diseases.

Off Season Production Techniques

• Taking use of and utilizing various agro-climatic conditions.
• Improved varieties are chosen.
• Adjustment of planting time.
• Making plastic tunnels, polythene houses, and permanent glass houses to provide controlled environmental conditions.
• Staggered planting
• Succession planting – planting two different at different times in one farm- one with a faster maturity.
  Construction of suspended garden design
  Refer to learner’s book

Value Addition Techniques

Value-added agriculture generally focuses on production or manufacturing processes, marketing or services that increase the value of primary agricultural commodities, perhaps by increasing appeal to the consumer and the consumer's willingness to pay a premium over similar but undifferentiated products.

Benefits include:

• increased income,
• employment creation,
• improved food safety,
• food security,
• nutritional benefits and
• greater consumer confidence.

There are four major ways that value is added to crops along the value chain:

1. product transformation, e.g. frying, drying
2. distribution,
3. storage, and
4. added service.

The value of farm products can be increased by cleaning, cooling, cooking, combining, churning, culturing, grinding, extracting, drying, handcrafting, packaging and distributing, as well as by adding information, education or entertainment,

Adding value to groundnuts

Apart from just eating them raw or cooked, groundnuts can be used to produce oil, paste, flour or sauce used in cakes and cookies obtained by grinding nuts, and peanut butter.

Adding value to Potatoes

This can be done through boiling, frying, smashing.

Learners to check on how to add value on other products

Importance Of Addition On Crop Produce (explained)

•  Increased revenue. Any addition adds a percentage of increased financial value to the produce and has the effect of improving the incomes of the local farmers.
• Value addition allows the farmer to focus on the consumer while producing and through meeting expectations, he can create a loyal market around the product.
• Increased shelf life is a benefit any farmer would want. The longer the product can stay without getting spoilt, the more the guarantee one has of a product selling at their preferred price and time. Milk for instance, hardly lasts over 24 hours but with boiling, it can last more days while with further processing into ghee, the same milk can last months.
• With value addition comes increased bargaining power. Brand Creation is one of the de facto results of value addition and a fact that your product can be directly identified with you or your farm which is important in an industry where customers exercise a lot of brand loyalty. It allows them to always and readily identify with you as well as win you more referral customers.
• value addition creates employment opportunities for people who work there like; industrial chemists, food processors, factory laborers
• Wastage and disposal of unwanted refuse is curtailed since they can be made into different quality products. This helps to ensure zero waste and protect the environment.

• Animal Handling
  • Forms Of Animal Handling (humane Methods)
    • Rabbit Restraint & Handling
    • Rodents Restraint & Handling
    • Avian Restraint
    • Cats Restraint & Handling
  • Importance of Human Treatment of Animals
• General management of Pets
  • Characteristics of pets
  • Factors to Consider When Selecting a Pet For Rearing
• Preparation of Animal Products
  • Factors To Consider When Grading Eggs
  • Processing Raw Honey
  • Extracting Honey Without A Honey Extractor

Animal Handling

Forms Of Animal Handling (humane Methods)

The objective of humane animal handling is to move animals with minimum stress to both the animals and handler. Considerate handling reduces the risk to the animal of pain, injury and suffering.

Planning the restraint procedure

When preparing to restrain a patient, always make sure the area has enough room, is clean, dry, and well lit

• A plan should be discussed:
• Move any costly equipment
• Nonslip area
• Temperature should be considered
• What should be done if animal happens to get away from restrainer
• Back up plan (Plan B!)

Rabbit Restraint & Handling

Picking Up

Grab scruff of the neck with one hand and lifting up while placing the other hand under the rump for support or wrap patient securely in a towel.

Holding

Use the same technique but the hand under the rump is moved to support the abdomen.
Rabbits seldom bite but many cause injury with their hind legs or may be injured if placed on a smooth surface
Rabbit’s foot pads are covered with fur which causes a lack of traction
Can lead to dislocation of their hip or spinal fracture, when they try to move or hop

Rodents Restraint & Handling

Mice

Grasp the tail close to the body with one hand
Use the other hand to grasp loose skin in the neck and shoulder area.
Larger Rodents and Ferrets
Make sure the animal is awake to avoid bites
Hold in one hand, cup other over its head
Wrap thumb and index
finger around neck and under chin
Do not over tighten fingers around chest as this can impair breathing

Avian Restraint

Birds

Highly trained personnel
Can stress easily
Do not squeeze thorax
Sensitive to overheating
Small to medium sized
Grasp from behind, finger and thumb on sides of head, others around body
Large birds require 2 hands
Towel can also be used

Cats Restraint & Handling

Cats tend to be one of the most difficult during restraint when they become upset and aggressive from stress
Safely restrain and have control over head
Cat bags: control the limbs and head
Squeeze cages: wire boxes with small slots that allow injections to be given

Inhuman handling of animals in the community

Solutions to animal’s mistreatment

• Be an example of kindness to other pets. ...
• Intervene if you witness animal cruelty, abuse or neglect. ...
• Report animal cruelty, abuse or neglect. ...
• Teach your children to have respect for animals. ...
• Demand stricter laws for the protection of animals. ...
• Shelter an animal in need.

Importance Of Human Treatment Of Animals

• Improved levels of animal health and care will deliver better animal welfare, more efficient livestock production, safer animal-sourced foods and healthier, improved livelihoods.
• Animals that are well fed and watered, kept in clean and comfortable conditions, and that are handled well with opportunities to express important behaviours are less likely to die prematurely or show poor growth than less well cared for animals.
• They are more productive with more efficient use of resources such as time, labour and feed for livestock production bringing benefits including improved food security and greater income.
• Furthermore, avoiding stress before slaughter reduces contamination of meat with harmful bacteria and affects the quality, and value of the meat.
• Animal welfare is therefore also environmental protection. However, it is not only animals in stables or private households that need to be protected, but also animals in the wild. There they need above all plenty of space, clean water, fresh air, and sufficient food and shelter.

General Management of Pets

Characteristics Of Pets

• Dependent on Humans to Live – A pet needs to be given food, water, and shelter by its owner. Being domesticated means the animal depends on its owner for all of its care.
• Lives in a Home – A pet lives in a home. Some pets such as parakeets and hamsters live in cages. Alternatively, dogs and cats wander freely around a home and may have their own bed to sleep in.
• Needs a Veterinarian’s Care – Pets need care from a veterinarian. The type of healthcare a pet needs depends on what type of pet it is. An iguana and a beagle need completely different types of vet care!
• Some Pets Can Be Trained – A dog can learn how to sit, stay, and heel in a course of obedience training. Parrots can be taught to talk, and some cats can be taught by humans to do tricks.
• Devoted to Its Owner – Pets are often devoted to their owners. They can establish a trust with their owner over time. In fact, some pets want to be with their owners 24/7!
• Provides Companionship – A pet is meant to be a companion to its owner.
• Pets are Different from a Therapy Animal – A therapy animal receives specific training in order to provide support and care to its owner. As an example, some therapy dogs are trained to recognize the signs of a seizure in their owner. The dog responds by trying to get the person to a safe place. Alternatively, a pet is there strictly as a companion.
• Different from a Farm Animal – A cow or a chicken living on a farm serves a specific purpose. A cow provides milk while a chicken lays eggs to be eaten or sold. This makes farm animals a little different than traditional pets.
• Can Be Common or Uncommon – When you think of a pet you probably picture a dog, a cat, a bird, a fish, or a gerbil. Those are common choices for pets. Some people prefer less common or exotic pets such as snakes, iguanas, spiders, and ferrets. As long as an owner can offer appropriate care, many animals can live happily as pets.
• Cannot Survive in the Wild – One of the main characteristics separating pets from other animals is a pet can’t survive in the wild. It has been domesticated or raised under a person’s care. So, releasing a pet snake into the wild doesn’t mean it will know how to find food or shelter. In fact, it will likely die.

Different types of pets reared in the community

A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with an individual or family. There are popular, well-known pets like dogs and cats

• Dogs
• Cat
• Rodents
• Fish
• Birds
• Turtles
• Snake

Factors To Consider When Selecting A Pet For Rearing

Choose a pet that will suit your lifestyle and surroundings. For instance:

• How often are you home? If you work long hours, a dog may not be a good choice of pet, as all dogs require lots of companionship. In this case, pets such as fish might be more suitable.
• How large is your backyard, and do you have good fencing? If you have a small backyard or poor fencing, then a dog may not be a good choice. You could consider a pet such as a cat that lives indoors with you.
• Are you prepared to have more than one pet? Some types of animals, such as birds and rabbits, need the company of each other to stay happy and healthy.
• How much money can you afford to spend on your pet? All pets are expensive — even animals that are cheap to purchase, like fish, birds and guinea pigs, can cost a lot of money when it comes to buying and setting up tanks, cages and hutches. Some dog breeds will cost more to keep than others. Large dogs need more food, some breeds of dogs need regular clipping of their coats.
• Are you renting? Your landlord may not let you to own a cat or a dog. You may want to consider other pets such as fish.
• Do you live in an apartment? Some birds, such as parrots, can be very noisy, and may attract complaints from neighbours. You may want to consider a quiet pet such as a cat, or fish.
• Do you have young children? Some types of pets tolerate children better than others.
• Are you prepared to have your pet inside with you? Dogs should not be left in the backyard all day — they need to spend time inside the house with you, in order to remain happy and healthy.
• Does your council require cats to be confined to your property? If so, you must be prepared to have your cat live inside with you, or to buy or build cat proof fencing or a cat enclosure.
• How much time do you have to exercise your pet? Dogs need daily walks. Some breeds of dog are more energetic than others and may need longer or more frequent walks.
• How much time do you have to train your pet? Dogs, particularly puppies or young dogs, need time spent on toilet training and basic obedience training. Puppies and kittens also require lots of socialization, and regular small meals throughout the day, during the first 6 months of life. You may be better off adopting an adult dog or cat, who is already house trained and socialized.

Acquiring a pet for rearing

• Adoption is the best choice 
  Adoption of a pet from a shelter is the best way to find a new companion. There are many animals in shelters waiting for a new home to call their own, including a large variety of breeds, sizes, and ages of animals. Some shelters also rehome small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs and hamsters who are often sadly taken to shelters when the children they have been bought for have lost interest in caring for them. The benefit of rehoming from a reputable animal shelter is that the animals will have been assessed both in terms of their health and behaviorally
• Brokers,
• pet stores,
• neighbors,
• professional breeders,
• commercial kennels,
• puppy mills, and animal shelters

Management Practices In Rearing Of Pets

• Colostrum feeding
• Weaning
• Disbudding - Arresting the horn growth at an early age, when the horn root is in the bud stage is called disbudding.
• Ear tagging
• Castration
• Vaccination schedule for adult animals
• Disinfection
• Quarantine
• Isolation of sick animals
• Insuring the animals
• Disposal of carcass
• Record maintenance

Preparation Of Animal Products

Different animal products include:
meat and meat products, poultry products (meat and eggs), fish, shellfish, dairy products (milk and cheese), and non-food products such as fiber (wool, mohair, cashmere, and leather)

Factors To Consider When Grading Eggs

The grade is determined by the

• interior quality of the egg
• the appearance and condition of the egg shell.
• Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight (size).
• Weight or Volume
• cleanliness
• Size,
• Colour

Factors considered in detecting defects when grading eggs

• blood spot,
• meat spot,
• mold,
• stuck yolk,
• addled egg and
• embryonic growth

Processing Raw Honey

The process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:

Honey Harvest

1. beekeepers suite - mesh helmet and folding veil would do it, with some layers of clothes
2. smoker with fuel (dry branches, leaves, etc.) and a lighter
3. frame super - where frames with honey combs will be put for transportation
4. sting resistant gloves
5. hive tool - to move the frames, scrape wax, etc.

Honey Extraction

1. heated knife - to unseal honey cells
2. uncapping fork - to unseal honey cells missed by the heated knife
3. tub for wax/honey
4. extractor! - fancy cylindrical piece of equipment, used to extract honey
5. food-grade bucket - to catch honey out of the extractor
6. double sieve - catches wax and impurities as honey is poured from extractor
7. containers - final destination of honey before consumption

The process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:

1. Harvesting
   Light the smoker. Use dry branches, hay or newspaper. The smoke dulls the bees' receptors, and prevents them from releasing the alarm odor, a volatile pheromone. The smoke also makes bees gorge on honey, which further pacifies them
   
2. Prepare Supers
   The frames with honey comb are transported in supers. Have them handy. You may also want to have a cloth to cover the super with frames full of honey to prevent bees or other insects from getting to them.
   
3. Open Sesame
   
   Using the hive tool, lift the hive lid and blow some smoke in the hive. Open lid slowly. Our bees were pretty calm, but that is not always the case!
4. Honey Frame Inspection
   Pull the frames out of the super and inspect the honey combs. Depending on how busy the bees were, how warm it was and if the hive didn't swarm you will know how much honey you have.
   
5. Extraction
   
   Now the best part! Take the frame of capped honey. Mount the frame above the tub for wax and honey. Use the heated knife to unseal the cells. Lean the heated knife on the edges of the frame and under 30 degree angle and move "fast" - don't linger too long, it burns the honey! Repeat for both sides of the frame.
   The heated knife takes off most of the caps. For the leftover ones, use the uncapping fork and gently shave off the caps.
6. Pour Out Slowly!
   
   Place your food-grade bucket under the extractor spigot. Use a double sieve to catch the wax and impurities as the honey starts pouring out of the extractor.
7. Prepare Containers
   
   Wash your jugs, jars or whatever containers you will put the honey in. Air dry.
   

Extracting Honey Without A Honey Extractor

For small apiaries, harvesting honey without an extractor can be a fun and inexpensive option. We’ll cover two methods that do not require an extractor: the crush and strain method, and the cut comb method. Both of these extraction methods sacrifice comb, meaning your bees will need to draw out new comb before they can produce more honey — which can mean a smaller harvest the next year. This may factor into your decision about which method you use.

The crush and strain method is a low-cost honey processing technique. You simply scrape the honeycomb off of the frame into a bucket, then crush the comb. Place a sieve in another bucket or container, pour the crushed comb into the sieve, and strain it overnight. This process may be best suited for hobby beekeepers who only have one or two hives. The honey will move more quickly in a warm room, and you may be able to get more honey if you stir the crushed combs a few times and scrape large wax flakes off of the inside of the strainer.

Cut comb honey is an elegant way to package and use your harvest. There are tools available for cutting and packaging comb, but a good-quality kitchen knife does the job nicely, as well. This method works only for frames that contain wireless wax foundation or no foundation — you cannot use this method with frames that use plastic foundations, and wired wax foundation will limit the sizes and shapes of combs you can cut. Choose frames that are fully capped and sealed — this indicates that the honey will have the right amount of moisture to prevent spoiling.

Importance of sorting and grading eggs

• Sorted eggs bring more money to the investor than unsorted.
• It reduces wastage.
• separates eggs into grades of quality.
• A bad egg can be dangerous to consume and negatively affect someone's health.

Importance of processing raw honey

• improves the honey's appearance,
• increases its shelf-life, and
• kills yeast cells that can affect the taste of the honey.
• It can prevent fermentation.
• It delays crystallization.
• removes impurities.

• Preparation Of Planting Site
• Crop Establishment
  • Types of Planting Materials
  • Environmental Factors
  • Seedling Characteristics
  • Methods of Planting Various Crops
  • Methods of Plant Propagation
• Crop Management
  • Physical Methods Of Weeding
  • Managing Plant Spaces
  • Crop Hardening

Preparation Of Planting Site

Preparing land for planting is one of the most important parts of cultivating abundance. Whether you're planting fruit trees, wildlife corridors, or an annual garden, prepping the soil in the first place is the best way to set yourself up for success over the long haul.
There are numerous methods that you can use for preparing land for planting that will help me make the living world around me come alive.

• One-Time Tilling
  
• Mulch Alone
• Sheet Mulching
• Double Digging
• Solarizing
  
• Animals (focus on chickens and pigs)

Crop Establishment

Categories of planting materials

Types of Planting Materials

• Seeds (seasoning herbs, legumes, corn)
• Seedlings (most vegetable crops)
• Cuttings (cassava, potato, yam, ginger, dasheen, tannia, eddoes)
• Suckers (banana, plantain)
• Budded/ grafted plants (fruit trees)

Certain Factors need to be considered when you are choosing planting matter or seedlings from nurseries or plant shop.

Environmental Factors

• The surroundings should be free from overgrown bushes, generally clean, no waterlogged conditions
• Seedlings should be in conditions that are free from excess shade. If seedlings have too much shade they do not “harden off” and they have difficulties when they are transplanted.

Seedling Characteristics

The seedlings should:

1. Be of the appropriate age (seedlings with 4-6 healthy green leaves)
2. Be free from pests and diseases
3. Have healthy white roots (good root development, with no balling of roots)
4. Show vigorous, healthy growth
5. Be of uniform appearance
6. Have the proper Shoot to Root ratio (2:1)

Methods Of Planting Various Crops

• Broadcasting: Generally, the seeds are broadcast-sown and later planked. This method of sowing is easier and area coverage is quick. However, uniform population cannot be maintained since the seeds are not placed in uniform depth and germination may not be uniform. The skill of the labour is important to sow the seeds evenly covering the entire field. Broadcast-sowing is normally practiced under dryland condition. Seed requirement is generally high for broadcast sowing.
• Sowing behind the country plough: In this method, sowing is taken up behind the country plough operation. Seeds are dropped in the furrow opened during ploughing and subsequently covered while the next adjoining furrow is formed. Bold seeded crops like groundnut are sown by this method in drylands. It is important to take up sowing at the appropriate soil moisture so that the depth of sowing is uniformly maintained.
• Drill sowing or drilling: Drill sowing is one of the best methods that provides uniform plant population since seeds are uniformly dropped in the furrows. Animal drawn or power operated seed drills are used for this purposes; seed cum fertilizer drill can also be used. By this way, depth of sowing can be maintained; fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. Pelleting of small sized seeds may reduce the risk of irregular dropping. Since sowing is taken up in lines, intercultural operations can be easily practiced. It is possible to take up sowing of intercrops also.
• Dibbling: In the method, a seed or few seeds are put in a hole and covered. Under irrigated condition, seeds are dibbled in lines or on the sides of the ridges maintaining optimum intra- row spacing, e.g. maize and cotton. Though this method is laborious and time consuming, it gives rapid and uniform germination and the requirement of seed is less than in broadcasting.

Methods of Plant Propagation

1. Cutting
   This is cutting the vegetative part of the plant (leaf, stem, and root) and then planting it again to regenerate the whole plant. The three types of cutting are named after the plant part being detached/cut:
   
   • Stem cutting
   • Leaf cutting
   • Root cutting
     
2. Division
   This is a suitable technique for perennials (plants that live for more than two years). It involves dividing the plant by digging and moving it to an already prepared site. This helps the plant to rejuvenate and reduce water and nutrient competition.
   
3. Layering
   In this technique, the attached and bent branch of the plant is covered with soil and allowed to root. After the emergence and development of roots that specific part of the plant is cut and allowed to grow as a new plant. This is called ‘layering’.
   
4. Grafting
   This involves cutting a twig of one plant and joining it with the stem of another plant in such a manner that they form a unit and function as one plant. It is a bit of a complex process but allows you to bring the desired character to your plant. However, be sure to sterilize your hands and tools to make sure you don’t transfer any infections during the process.
   
5. Budding
   In this method, a cut is made in the rootstock and a single bud with little or no wood is inserted into it in such a way that they unite and grow as a new plant.
   

Time of planting depends on the following factors

• Soil and weather conditions
• The kind of crop to be planted.
• The time the produce is desired.

Crop Management

• Adoption of best crop management practices improves crop productivity and can contribute to greater yields with improved quality.
• Crop management is the set of agricultural practices performed to improve the growth, development and yield of crops.
• It begins with a seedbed preparation, sowing of seeds and crop maintenance; and ends with crop harvest, storage and marketing.
• The timing and sequence of agricultural practices depend upon several factors, such as winter or spring crops; harvested products such as grain, hay and silage; sowing methods-broadcast and row-crops; and, plants age, soil, climate and weather conditions.

Physical Methods Of Weeding

Manual control

Manual control is the use of the hands or handheld tools to deal with. An advantage of manual control is that it minimizes soil disturbance, and decreases the likelihood of erosion and seed germination.

Hand pulling

Hand pulling aims to remove the entire plant, including its roots, from the soil. This method is useful for small-scale infestations. It is best to hand-pull weeds after rain, when soil is moist. Sturdy gloves should be worn to avoid prickles, blisters or sap burns to the skin. It is not appropriate for all weed species, such as those with underground bulbs.
Hand tools such as broad knives and trowels can be used to remove underground parts of weeds (such as bulbs) that may reshoot. In some cases it is necessary to dig out the crown of the plant. This requires the growing part of the plant to be cut beneath the ground using a knife.

Grubbing or chipping

This method requires weeds to be dug out using a mattock or chip hoe. Depending on the plant, it may be important to expose the root system, and remove the crown.
In some cases, the mattock or chip hoe is used to cut the stem of the plant below the ground. This method is useful when the ground is hard. Gloves should be worn to avoid blisters.

Mechanical control

Mechanical control is the use of powered tools and machinery to manage weeds and is best suited to larger infestations. Care should be taken to minimise soil disturbance.

Slashing, mowing, dozing, pushing and felling

At times, controlling weeds using mechanical methods is preferred. However, care should be taken when machinery is used in the process.

Disturbing the soil with mechanical control can:

• increase the likelihood of seed germination
• damage native vegetation.

Bulldozers and chainsaws can be used on woody and tree weeds where they are pushed or felled and finally snigged (dragged away). These methods are only suitable in certain situations, as they create high levels of soil and vegetation disturbance. Also, shoots and seedlings require follow-up attention.

Grading or scalping the top layer of soil is an effective method of removing a seedbank. As this method greatly disturbs the soil, it is best suited for areas that are to undergo complete rehabilitation.

Earth Up
Earthing up refers to the act of heaping soil around the root zone of the potato plant. It is one of the primary production practices that must be done to increase the potato yield.

Advantages of earthing up

• improves tuber formation/expansion/roots/pods formation
• Improves drainage around the crop
• Conserves water/soil
• Facilitates harvesting of tuber crops
• Root protection

Managing Plant Spaces

Thinning

When the young seedlings are too close to each other, they do not grow well. They do not find enough nourishment in the soil and their leaves do not have enough room to develop.
Leave only the strongest plants and remove the others. This is called thinning.
When you take out the seedlings that are small, diseased or misshapen, be very careful not to damage the seedlings which remain in the beds.
At the end, pack down the earth around the base of the plants and water them.

Staking

Vegetables with long and weak stems, for example beans and tomatoes, need stakes.
A stake is a stick firmly embedded in the earth. It is best to use hard wood, which does not rot.

Pruning

Certain vegetables, like tomatoes, beans, eggplant, need pruning.
Nip off surplus buds. Then there will be more fruits and they will be bigger.

Gapping

When the seeds fail to germinate, empty spaces are seen within the rows. This if left unfilled can make the farmer incur losses as a result of low yields. The filling up of these spaces or the replacement of ungerminated seeds is called gapping.

Advantages of thinning and gapping

Both thinning and gap filling ensures ideal plant population and optimum utilization of sunlight, space, nutrients, moisture and other inputs which ultimately increases yield.

Crop Hardening

• Hardening, or "hardening off," is the process of allowing a plant to transition from a protected indoor or greenhouse environment to the harsh outdoor conditions of fluctuating spring temperatures, wind, and full sun exposure.
• A gradual introduction of these outdoor stresses will cause the plant to accumulate carbohydrates, to trigger more root development, to reduce the amount of freeze-prone water in the plant, and to actually thicken its cell walls. Plant growth will change from soft and supple to much firmer and harder.

Hardening Timetable

• Start the process of moving plants outdoors about two weeks before the weather will be favorable enough for the particular plant to live outdoors.
• Check seed package instructions or inquire where you purchase seedlings as to when the plant can tolerate outdoor conditions. (Keep in mind that air temperature is often warmer than soil temperature.)
• This Vegetable Planting and Transplanting Guide provides guidance for when some popular crops can be planted outdoors.

Hardening Process

• When temperatures are at least 45-50ᵒ, move plants outdoors to a shady, protected spot.
• Initially place in the shaded, sheltered location for two to three hours.
• Gradually increase the amount of sunlight the plants receive over the two-week period. The last day or two, the plants can spend 24 hours outside.
• Reduce the amount of water plants receive, but do not allow them to wilt.
• Avoid placing seedlings outdoors on windy days.
• Cold frames are excellent places to harden plants, but another spot that provides protection, such as a porch, will work.
• Pay attention to the weather forecast; if temperatures will fall below 45ᵒ, be prepared to bring the plants inside.

Keep in mind that the overall goal of hardening is to slow the growth of the plants to allow them to adjust to a change in conditions. After proper hardening, even warmth-loving vegetables, such as tomatoes, can withstand an unexpected dip in spring temperatures.

Importance of crop management practices

Learners to work on them.

• Soil Pollution Control
  • Causes of Soil Pollution
  • Effects Of Soil Pollution
  • Possible Solutions to Soil Pollution
  • Safe Farming Practices That Prevent Soil Pollution
  • Benefits of Soil Conservation
• Water Conservation Methods In Farming
  • Importance Of Water Conservation In Farming
  • Water Retention Structures to conserve Surface Runoff
  • Minimum Tillage Practices That Conserve Water In Farming
• Agroforestry
  • Characteristics of Agroforestry
  • Characteristics Of Agricultural Crops For Agroforestry
  • Advantages/importance Of Agroforestry
  • Disadvantages of Agroforestry

Soil Pollution Control

Def: Soil pollution - refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and reduces the soil quality.

• It occurs when the substances causing the pollution reduce the quality of the soil and convert the soil inhabitable for microorganisms and macro organisms living in the soil.
• Soil contamination or soil pollution can occur either because of human activities or because of natural processes.
• However, mostly it is due to human activities. The soil contamination can occur due to the presence of chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, nitrate, mercury, naphthalene, etc. in an excess amount.
  

Causes of Soil Pollution

• Soil pollution is a complex occurrence, and it can be triggered by a variety of things and activities, from the littering of cigarette butts to excess use of chemical fertilizers.
• Every cause is linked with another. It is quite difficult to pinpoint one particular cause. However, the leading causes are listed below.

1. Industrial Activity - Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem of soil pollution, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the earth. As a result, the industrial waste lingers on the soil surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use.
2. Agricultural Activities - The utilization of chemicals has gone up tremendously since technology has provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil.
3. Waste Disposal - While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every person excretes a certain amount of personal waste in the form of urine and feces. While much of it moves into the sewer system, there is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water.
4. Accidental Oil Spills - Oil leaks can happen during the storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel reduces the quality of soil and make it unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the groundwater through the soil and make the water undrinkable.
5. Acid Rain - Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mix up with the rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the essential nutrients found in the soil and change the structure of the soil.

Effects Of Soil Pollution

Soil influences almost all aspects of our daily lives. Sometimes we fail to understand it. As a result of this, we sometimes fail to understand the effect that soil pollution has on our daily lives. Polluted soil means stunted crops or even a toxic underground water table. Some major effects of soil pollution are:

• Effect on Health of Humans - Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences for our health. Crops and plants that are grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass it on to us. This could explain the sudden increase in small and terminal illnesses. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it.
• Effect on Growth of Plants - The ecological balance of any system is affected due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.
  
  The fertility of the soil slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for their native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life.
• Decreased Soil Fertility - The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables, which lack quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substances to cause serious health problems in people consuming them.
• Poisoning of the Underground Water Table - Soil pollution also leads to the poisoning of the underground water table. Since this water is stored beneath the layers of the soil, the toxins in the soil could easily percolate slowly and steadily into the water table.

Possible Solutions to Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is a complex problem that ought to be solved. It is essential that we all realize how important soil is to us.
The earlier we realize this, the better we will be able to solve the problem of soil pollution. It is a complex problem, and thus, it requires everyone, from an individual to the government, to work in complete unison. Listed below are a few things that could help in reducing soil pollution.

• Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers - Chemical fertilizers do more harm than good. While proper amounts could enhance the fertility of the soil, an excess of it actually poisons the soil. The excess of chemical fertilizers could pollute the soil in several ways. It could mess with the pH levels of the soil. It could also destroy the good microorganisms in the soil. Not only that, but the runoff from such soils also causes water pollution as well. Thus, using chemical fertilizers is like a double-edged sword.
• Reforestation and Afforestation Should Be Promoted - One of the major causes of soil pollution is soil erosion, which is caused due to deforestation.
  It is natural that, with an ever-growing population, humankind needs more and more space to expand their civilization. Often, it is achieved at the cost of the health of the soil.
  To prevent this from happening, reforestation of a deforested area should be promoted. Also, afforestation should be promoted and encouraged in the barren lands.
  The roots of the plants bind the soil particles together and even capture good microorganisms in the soil. It also ensures the maintenance of the underground water table.
• Recycle and Reuse Products - These steps not only reduce waste generation but also ensure that soil pollution is reduced. At present, plastic forms a significant portion of the generated waste. More often than not, this wastes are buried in landfills.
  In these landfills, these plastics and other materials decompose slowly and release toxic materials into the soil. These toxic substances are very harmful to the health of the soil and are a major source of soil pollution.
  By reusing and recycling things, we would ensure that lesser wastes are dumped in these landfills, and this, in turn, would reduce soil pollution.
• Promote Use of Natural Manure - Natural manure is one of the best sources of nutrients for the soil. It is harmless and completely organic. It adds essential nutrients to the soil and restores the health of the soil. It has no harmful by-products that could harm the soil or the environment in any way.
• Create awareness - In order to ensure that a problem like soil pollution is solved, it is essential that every individual must get involved. It is with their involvement that things can work out better. Awareness programs could be designed so that people understand soil pollution better. If people are aware, they will help, even subconsciously.

Safe Farming Practices That Prevent Soil Pollution

Different types of soil conservation methods ensure long-term usage of land and keep it productive for future generations. Let’s consider their benefits in regard to soil conservation.

• Conservation Tillage - The conservation tillage aims at addressing wind and water erosion by covering the earth with vegetation (either crops or their residues) and limiting the number of tilling operations. Another significant aspect is to choose the proper time for field operations, depending on the soil types. For example, clay ones are better to till after harvesting while other types are better to plow before seeding.
• Contour Farming - The soil conservation method proves efficient in slope territories and suggests planting species along the contour. Rows up and down the slope provoke soil erosion due to water currents while rows along the contour restrain it. An impact of terracing is similar: it also helps to conserve soil and reduce its degradation processes.
  
• Strip Cropping - In this case, farmers combine high-growing crops with low-growing ones for the sake of wind protection, like when corn grows in strips with forage crops. The strip cropping practice works even better when high-growing crops are intensified in the sides where winds blow most frequently. An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the low crops.
  
• Windbreaks - As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops from snow and winds planted in several rows. Depending on the number of rows, we can distinguish windbreaks properly (up to five rows) and shelterbelts (six and more).
  
• Crop Rotation - Crop rotation vs. mono-cropping farming suggests changing agro species instead of planting one and the same for many subsequent seasons.
  Farmers applying this soil conservation method reap numerous benefits. Crop rotation helps them improve the earth structure with diverse root systems, to mitigate pest establishments, and to add nitrogen to the land with legumes known as nitrogen-fixing plants.
• Cover Crops - This soil conservation technique is another way to avoid bare soils and additionally benefit from planting cover crops – secondary species – in-between growing cash crops for different reasons like to:
  1. produce forage and grazing material for cattle;
  2. provide green manure;
  3. assist in weed control;
  4. retain moisture;
  5. ensure a natural environment for microorganisms and minor animals;
  6. balance nitrogen concentration (either releasing or accumulating it with certain plants).
• Buffer Strips - These are trees and bushes on the banks of water bodies to prevent sediment, water wash offs. Their roots fix the soil to avoid slumping and erosion, canopies protect from excessive sunlight to water inhabitants and falling leaves are a source of organic matter and food of minor aquatic animals
  
• Integrated Pest Management - Pests are a great nuisance to agriculturalists and have been a major issue to tackle while chemicals poison nature leaking to water and the atmosphere. It is important to eliminate synthetic herbicides replacing them with organic ones or establishing biological enemies of pests whenever possible, rotating crop species to minimize increasing pest populations in the same field for years, and using alternative techniques in complex.

Benefits of Soil Conservation

Humankind in general and farmers in particular benefit from numerous advantages of soil conservation. This agricultural practice contributes to sustainability in a number of ways:

• Boosts earth quality and productivity. Maintaining the natural environment for earth-dwelling organism’s increases fertility and reduces the necessity of chemical fertilizing, thus boosting yields and saving costs at the same time.
• Mitigates erosion. Soil conservation methods to reduce erosion and depletion help agriculturalists to avoid the expansion of new lands when territories become infertile.
• Promotes water infiltration and increases its storage. The soil conservation technique of minimum tillage vs. conventional plowing affects soil moisture by reducing cracking and evaporation as well as rising the infiltration rate.
• Aids air and water purification. The importance of soil conservation relates to water supplies, and the earth functions as a natural filter to purify water. Soil conservation mitigates the concentration of pollutants and sediments. In its turn, water is the basic condition to dissolve nutrients for plants. Soil carbon sequestration and reduced chemical applications contribute to air purity, too.
• Gives food and shelter for wildlife. Land with growing vegetation is a living environment for animals; it is not only the source for nourishment but their home as well.
  “When the well is dry, we know the worth of water.”
  – Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard’s Almanack for 1733

Water Conservation Methods In Farming

• Mulch - We cannot overemphasize the importance of mulching. Mulch is something laid on the surface of the soil to protect the soil from the air, water and the sun.
  To mulch, first weed the soil then spread a thick layer of organic mulch on the soil. Examples of organic mulches are:
  
  1. Chopped leaves
  2. Straw
  3. Grass clippings
  4. Wood chips
  5. Shredded bark
  6. Pine needles
     Mulching helps save time and labour as it discourages weeds and pests and conserve water through reduced evaporation.
     
• Irrigate early morning or dusk - At the hottest and driest time of the year it is most efficient to water your crops in the morning or in the evening. This avoids water loss from evapotranspiration (water evaporating from the land and leaves of plants). Evaporation happens most in the midday sun.
  
• Don’t over-water - It’s a common misconception that plants would be happy with lots of water all of the time. But often farmers are over-watering crops unnecessarily. Save water! Plants will only take what they need and then all that extra water goes to waste through evaporation, run-off or infiltration.
  
• Check for leaks and damage - If you’ve already invested in an irrigation system, make sure you’re not losing any water before it reaches the crops. Irrigation pipes and equipment can become damaged or blocked which causes leaks. Thoroughly check your equipment for leaks and repair them so that all the water you have gets to the crops.
  
• Drip Irrigation - Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to a plant’s roots, reducing the evaporation that happens with spray watering systems. Timers can be used to schedule watering for the cooler parts of the day, further reducing water loss.

Importance Of Water Conservation In Farming

• It minimizes the effects of drought and water shortages. By reducing the amount of water we use, we can better protect against future drought years.
• It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources.
• It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources.

Water Retention Structures To Conserve Surface Runoff

Water Retention Structures means a structure designed to retain a large volume of water
There are various methods of water retention to conserve surface runoff, this include:

• Water retention Ditches - Ditches are man-made waterbodies that are used mainly to drain the land.
  
• Earth Basins - is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single point
  
• Water retention pits – is an artificial pond with vegetation around the perimeter and a permanent pool of water in its design.
  

Minimum Tillage Practices That Conserve Water In Farming

Tillage practices refer to the tillage operations carried out between the harvest and following sowing/cultivation operation. Tillage, crop rotation and soil cover are practices related to pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, soil compaction etc. Some of the minimum tillage practices include:

• Use of herbicides;
• Uprooting/slashing;
• Use of cash crops;
• Limiting cultivation to the point planting;
• Proper timing of cultivation;
• Mulching

There are other different tillage practices distinguished are:

• Conservation tillage
• Conventional tillage
• Zero tillage

Conservation tillage can include the following systems:

• Strip tillage or zonal tillage refers to a system where strips 5 to 20 cm in width are prepared to receive the seed whilst the soil along the intervening bands is not disturbed and remains covered with residues. The system causes more soil disturbance and provides less cover along the rows than zero tillage.
• Tined tillage or vertical tillage refers to a system where the arable land is prepared with equipment which does not invert the soil and which cause little compaction. For this reason, the surface normally remains with a good cover of residues on the surface.
• Ridge tillage is a system of ridges and furrows. The ridges may be narrow or wide and the furrows can be parallel to the contour lines or constructed with a slight slope, depending on whether the objective is to conserve moisture or to drain excess moisture. The ridges can be semi-permanent or be constructed each year which will govern the amount of residue material that remains on the surface.

Conventional tillage

Refers to the arable land treated by conventional tillage which involves inversion of the soil, normally with a moldboard or a disc plough as the primary tillage operation, followed by secondary tillage with a disc harrow.

Zero tillage

Refers to the arable land on which no tillage is applied between harvest and sowing. Zero tillage is a minimum tillage practice in which the crop is sown directly into soil not tilled since the harvest of the previous crop. Weed control is achieved by the use of herbicides and/or appropriate mulching and stubble is retained for erosion control.

Agroforestry

It’s the cultivation and use of trees and shrubs with crops and livestock in agricultural systems.

Characteristics of Agroforestry

While selecting tree species for agroforestry systems, the following desirable characteristics should be taken into consideration. Though all desirable characters are not found in a single species, but their multiple uses are taken care of.

1. Tree species selected should not interfere with soil moisture
   
   • Tree species selected for agroforestry should have very less water requirement
   • Should not compete with main agricultural crops for water.
   • Tree species should be deep tap rooted so that they can draw water from deep strata of the soil.
2. Tree species should not compete for plant nutrients
   
   • Tree species should not utilize more plant nutrients
   • They should help in building soil fertility,
   • Leguminous tree species which fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots should be prefered.
   • The root system and root growth characteristics should ideally result in to exploration of soil layers that are different to those being trapped by agricultural crops.
3. Tree species should not compete for sunlight
   
   • Tree species should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops.
   • Tree species should be light branching in their habit.
   • Trees permit the penetration of light into the ground and promote better crop, pasture growth and yield.
   • Tree species can withstand pruning operation if it possess dense canopy.
4. Tree species should have high survival rate and easy establishment
   
   • Trees species should have high survival percentage,
   • Leave little or no gaps after transplanting.
   • Hardy tree species are easy to establish.
   • They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily.
   • Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after transplanting.
5. Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy management
   
   • Tree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,
   • Rapid growth, especially in the early years,
   • Tree should have short rotation (the period between planting and final harvesting)
   • Fast growing species
6. Tree species should have wider adaptability
   
   • A tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability.
7. Tree species should have high palatability as a fodder
   
   • Most of the Indian farmer’s rear livestock separately and cut and carry method of fodder production is quite prevalent.
   • Therefore, in agroforestry, farmer must select those tree species which are palatable to livestock and had a high digestibility.
8. Tree species should have shelter conferring and soil stabilization attributes
   
   • Some tree species, because of their inherent growth habit and adaptability, are especially helpful in providing protection for soils, crops and livestock.
9. Tree species should have capability to withstand management practices
   
   • Many agroforestry systems demand extensive pruning and lopping of the trees in order to maximize production. In such cases, the trees must be able to withstand such treatment without drastically restricting growth rate.
10. Tree species should have nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation attributes
    
    • Within an agroforestry system, trees can play an important role in recycling nutrients, leached down through the soil profile and minerals released from weathering parent material such as rocks and sediments.
    • These nutrients are used in the growth and development of the tree, many returning to the top-soil in form of dead leaves, twigs, flowers and seeds which slowly decompose on the surface, or are eaten by animals.
    • Although all trees play some role in maintaining the nutrient status of the soil through recycling.
    • Deciduous trees drop most of their leaves in autumn leaving a thick mat of leaves on the ground, whereas most evergreen species maintain some level of litter fall throughout the year.
    • Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots.
    • The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant.
    • The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing the nitrogen status of the soil.
11. Tree species should have thin bark
    
    • Species selected for agroforestry combinations should not shed its bark regularly but it should retain for longer period as bark shedding creates unhygienic conditions for under-ground crop.
12. Tree species should be free from chemical exudations
    
    • The species selected for agroforestry combination must be free from chemicals as these chemicals affect the growth of under-ground crops.
13. Tree species should have easily decomposable leaves
    
    • The suitable tree species for agroforestry will be that one in which fallen leaves decompose with fast rate.
    • The leaves of most of the legume tree species are small in size, decompose quickly and easily, and add a large quantity of organic matter and nutrients to the soil.
    • Tree species having broad leaves such as teak, mango and banyan should not be preferred for agroforestry system.
    • They contain more fibre matter and also require longer time for decomposition. Further, broad leaves when fall on the tender crop plants, block their photosynthetic activities.
14. Tree species should have their multiple uses
    
    • The selected tree species should have multiple uses.
    • The tree should yield more than one of the main produce like fuelwood, leaf fodder, edible fruit, edible flower and fibre.
15. Tree species should have high yield potential
    
    • High yield potential is the most important criterion of selection of tree species for agroforestry systems as the main aim is to obtain overall more output per unit area. Care should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source.

Suitable tree species for agroforestry 

• Leucaena leucocephala
• Gravillea robusta
• Calliandra catothrysus
• Mangifera indica
• Sesbania sesban
• Lantana camara
• Cajanus cajan

Characteristics Of Agricultural Crops For Agroforestry

1. Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing.
2. They should be at least partially tolerant to shade.
3. Most of them should belong to Leguminous family.
4. They should respond well to high density tree planting.
5. They should bear some adverse conditions, like water stress and/or excess of watering;
6. Crops should return adequate organic matter to soil through their fallen leaves, root system, stumps, etc.
7. Crops should appropriately be fitted in intensive or multiple cropping system.

Advantages/importance Of Agroforestry

1. Saves labour since some operations can be done at once for both plants and trees
2. Gives higher combined yield
3. Provide wide variety of agricultural produce
4. Reduces the risks of total failure
5. Crops benefit from nitrogen fixing trees.
6. Trees help in holding the soil firmly
7. Some trees act as livestock fodder.
8. Provides a wider variety of agricultural produce.

Disadvantages of Agroforestry

1. Mechanization is difficult.
2. Use of pesticides and fertilizer may be difficult.
3. Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different trees

• Business Transactions
  • Documents Used At The Inquiry Stage
  • Documents Used At The Order Stage
  • Documents Used At The Delivery Stage
  • Documents Used At The Invoicing Stage
  • Documents Used At The Payment Stage
• Methods Of Payments For Goods And Services
  • Cash
  • Means Of Payments Provided By The Banks
    • Cheques
    • Bank drafts/Banker’s cheques
    • Credit Transfer
    • Standing Order
    • Traveler's cheques
    • Telegraphic Transfers
    • Debit cards
    • Electronic Fund Transfer (E.F.T)
  • Means of Payments Provided By The Post Office
  • Other Means Of Payment
• Importance Of Financial Documents In Record Keeping In Business

Business Transactions

• A business transaction is a deal between two or more people involving exchange of goods and services in terms of money.
• Business transaction may take place on cash basis; in which case goods are paid for before or on delivery or a short while after delivery
• Business transaction may also take place on credit basis; which means payment is made after a specified period from the date of delivery of the goods or the provision of the services

Documents Used At The Inquiry Stage

This is the first stage in transaction. An inquiry is a request by a prospective buyer for information on available goods and services. It is aimed at establishing the following;

• Whether the goods or services required are available for sale
• The quality or nature of the products available
• The prices at which the goods or services are being sold
• The terms of sale in respect to payment and delivery of goods or services Some of the documents used at this stage include;

Letter of inquiry;
This is a letter written by a potential buyer to the seller to find out the goods and services offered by the seller.
A letter of inquiry can be general or specific. A specific letter of inquiry seeks for information about a particular product.
Reply to an inquiry
The seller may reply to the letter of inquiry by sending any of the following documents;

• Price list
• A catalogue
• Quotation
• A tender
  1. A price list
     This is a list of items sold by the trader together with their prices. The information contained in a price list is usually brief and not illustrated and may include;
     • Name and address of the Seller-List of the goods and services
     • The recommended unit prices of the products -Any discounts offered
       Price list show the prices of the commodities at that time.
  2. A catalogue;
     A catalogue is a basket which briefly describes the goods a seller stocks.
     It is normally sent by the seller to the buyer when the buyer sends a general letter of inquiry. It usually carries illustrations on the goods stocked, and could be in the form of attractive and colorful pictures
     The content of a catalogue includes the following;
     • Name and address of the seller
     • Details of the products to be sold; inform of pictures and illustrations
     • The prices of the products
     • After-sales services offered by the seller
     • Packaging and posting expenses to be incurred
     • Delivery services to be used
     • Terms of sale
       Catalogues carry more information than the price list and they are more expensive to print.
  3. Quotation;
     This is a document sent by a seller to a buyer in response to a specific letter of inquiry. It specifies the conditions and terms under which the seller is willing to supply the specified goods and services to the buyer.
     The content of a quotation includes the following;
     • Name and address of Seller-Name and address of the buyer
     • Description of goods to be supplied -Prices of the commodities
     • Terms of sale i.e. discounts, time of supply, delivery -Total of the goods to be supplied
       Quotations are normally in form of letters, but many large-scale businesses have pre-printed quotations forms which they readily send to the potential customers.
  4. A Tender
     This is a document of offer to sell sent by a seller to a buyer in response to an advertised request
     Tenders contain the following;
     • Date when the tender advertisement was made -Mode of payment
     • Date of making document -Discounts given
     • Name and address of prospective seller called the tenderer
     • The prices at which the goods can be provided
     • Period of delivery -Mode of delivery
     • Tenders are delivered in sealed envelopes which are opened by the buyer on a specified date
       The winning tender is usually awarded on the of the lowest quoted price although the buyer is not obliged to accept this especially if quality is likely to be low
       Tenders are not binding unless accepted by the buyer.

Documents Used At The Order Stage

After receiving replies to inquiry in form of price list, catalogue or Quotation, a prospective buyer will study the terms and conditions stated in them, and then may decide to buy products or not.

1.  An Order
   If a prospective buyer decides to purchase an item(s), he or she then places an order
   An order is a document sent by a potential buyer to a seller requesting to be provided with specified products under specified terms and conditions
   -An order issued for goods is called a local purchase order (LPO) An order issued for services is called a local service order (LSO)
   Ways of making an order
   1. Filling an order form. This is a pre-printed document that is used for making orders
   2. Writing an order letter
   3. Sending an e-mail, faxing or sending a short text message
   4. Giving a verbal order. Verbal orders have the disadvantage in that they can be misunderstood and there would be no record of items ordered
      Where written orders are made, the potential buyer keeps a copy of the order for use in verifying the goods ordered when they are delivered.
      A written order may contain the following;
      • Name and address of the buyer
      • Name and address of the seller
      • The number of the order
      • Quantities ordered and total amount to be paid
      • Description of the goods ordered
      • Price per item
      • Special instructions on such matters as packaging and delivery
2. Acknowledgement note
   On receiving the order, the seller sends the buyer an acknowledgement note An acknowledgement note is a document sent by the seller to the prospective buyer to inform him/her that the order has been received and it is being acted upon.
   After sending the acknowledgement note, the seller has to decide whether to extend credit to the buyer or not. At this stage, the seller has the following options;
   
   1. If the seller is convinced that the buyer is credit worthy, arrangements are made to deliver the ordered goods or services to the buyer.
   2. If the seller is not sure of credit worthiness of the buyer, a credit status inquiry can be issued to the buyer’s bankers or to other suppliers who deal with the buyer to ascertain the credit worthiness.
   3. If the buyer is not credit worthy then a polite note or a pro forma invoice can be sent to him/her

A proforma invoice

This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer requesting the buyer to make payment for goods or services before they are delivered. It indicates that the seller is not willing to grant the buyer credit.

Functions of a proforma invoice

1. A polite way of asking for payment before the goods are delivered
2. Sent when the seller does not want to give credit
3. Used by importers to get customers clearance before goods are delivered
4. Issued to an agent who sells goods on behalf of the seller
5. Show what the buyer would have to pay if the order is approved
6. Can be used to serve as a quotation

Circumstances under which a pro-forma invoice may be used

• If the seller does not want to give credit
• If the seller wants to sell goods through an agent
• If the seller wants to get clearance for imported goods
• If the seller wants it to function as a quotation
• If the seller wants to inform the buyer what he/she pay if the order is approved e.t.c

Documents Used At The Delivery Stage

After the seller has accepted the order sent an acknowledgement note and where necessary the pro-forma invoice, the seller then prepares the goods for delivery to the buyer. This can be done in the following ways;

• The seller can ask the buyer to collect the goods
• The seller can deliver the goods to the buyer using his/her own means of transport
• The goods can be delivered to the buyer through public transport
• The services(s) can be rendered to the buyer at the sellers or the buyer’s premises or at any convenient place.

The main documents that are used at this stage are;

1. Packing note; Before delivery goods are packed for dispatch. This is a document prepared by the seller showing the goods contained/packed in every container, box or carton being delivered to the buyer
   
   • A copy of the packing note is packed with the goods to make/help the buyer have a spot check.
     The contents of a packing note include;
   • Description of goods packed
   • Quantities of goods packed
   • The means of delivery
     NOTE: A packing not does not contain prices of goods. This ensures that those people involved in checking and transporting goods do not know the value of goods. This is done as a precaution against theft.
2. Advice note; This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to inform the buyer that the ordered goods have been dispatched. It is usually sent through the fastest means possible.
   
   • It contains the following;
   • The means of delivery
   • A description of the goods
   • The quantity dispatched -Date
   • Name and address of buyer and seller
     Functions of an advice note
     1. Informing the buyer that the goods are on the way so that in case of any delay in delivery, the buyer can make inquiries
     2. Alerting the buyer so that necessary arrangements can be made for payments when the goods arrive
     3. Can serve as an acknowledgement note, where one is not sent/
3. Delivery note; This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to accompany the goods being delivered.
   -A delivery note is always made in triplicate (3), one copy remains with the seller and two sent to the buyer.
   -When the goods reach the buyer, he/she confirms that the goods are the ones ordered for and that they are in the right condition by comparing the delivery note, the order and the goods. If the buyer is satisfied with the goods, he/she signs the two copies, retains the original and send the copy back to the seller. This serves as evidence that the goods have been received in the right condition and in the right quantities.
   -Some businesses keep delivery books in which the buyer signs to indicate that goods have been received in good condition. A delivery book is used by the seller if he/she delivers goods by himself/herself as an alternative to a delivery note
   The content of a delivery note includes the following;
   
   1. Name and address of the seller
   2. Name and address of the buyer
   3. Date of delivery
   4. Delivery note number
   5. Description of the goods delivered
   6. Quantities of the goods delivered
   7. Space for the buyer to sign and comment on the condition of the goods received.
4. Consignment note
   This is a document prepared by a transporter to show that he/she has been hired to deliver specified goods to a particular buyer. This document is used when goods are delivered to the buyer by public means of transport e.g. by trains.
   -The seller is the consignor, the buyer is the consignee and the goods the consignment
   -The transporting company prepares the consignment note and gives the seller to complete and sign. The seller then returns the note to the transporter (carrier) who takes it together with the goods to the buyer.
   -On receiving the goods, the buyer signs the consignment note as evidence that the goods were actually transported.
   The content of a consignment note includes the following;
   
   • Details of the goods to the transported
   • Name address of seller (consignor)
   • Name and address of buyer (consignee)
   • Terms of carriage and conditions of transporting the goods
   • The transportation cost
   • Handling information
   • Destination of goods
5. Goods Received note; This is a document sent by the buyer to the seller to inform him/her that goods sent have been received. It usually prepared in duplicate, the original is sent to the seller and the copy retained by the buyer.
   The contents of the goods received note include;
   
   • Date of the document
   • Name and address of the buyer
   • Name and address of the seller
   • Corresponding purchase order
   • Details of goods received
   • Date the goods were received.
6. Returned goods note/Damaged goods note; If goods are damaged on the way, the buyer may return them to the seller. The buyer may also return goods for other reasons e.g.
   
   • Wrong type of goods
   • Excess goods
   • Wrong quality goods
     -When the goods are returned, the buyer informs the seller of the return by sending a goods returned note.
     -A goods returned note is a document sent by a buyer to a seller to inform him/her that certain goods are being returned to the seller.
     -Where the goods are returned because of damage, the note may be referred to as the damaged goods note.
     The contents of the goods returned note include;
   • Details of goods that have been returned to the seller
   • Date goods are returned
   • The number of (GRN)
   • Order number
   • Delivery number
   • Name and address of both buyer and seller
     -When the seller receives the note together with the goods, he issues a credit note

Documents Used At The Invoicing Stage

This stage involves the seller requesting or demanding for payment from the buyer for the goods or services delivered.
Some of the documents used at this stage include:

1. Invoice
   This is a document sent to the buyer by the seller to demand for payment for goods delivered or services rendered.
   There are two types of invoices namely:
   
   1. Cash invoice-This is sent when payment is expected immediately after delivery thus acting as a cash sale receipt
   2. A credit invoice-This is sent when a buyer is allowed to pay at a later date.
      Functions of an invoice
      
      1. It shows the details of goods sold i.e. quantity delivered, unit price, total value of the goods and terms and conditions of sale.
      2. It is a request to the buyer to make payment
      3. It serves as an evidence that the buyer owes the seller a certain amount of money
      4. It is used as a source document in recording the transaction in the book of accounts.
         The contents of an invoice include the following:
         • Invoice number
         • Name and address of the seller
         • Name and address of the buyer
         • Date document is prepared
         • Details of goods repaired
         • Unit prices of goods delivered
         • Total value of goods
         • Discounts offered
         • E and O.E printed at the bottom
           The letters E and O.E (Errors and Omissions Excepted) means the seller reserves the right to correct any errors and omissions made in the invoice. -On receiving the invoice, the buyer verifies the contents using the local purchase order and the delivery note. If the invoice is in order, the buyer makes arrangements to pay the amount stated.
           Businesses which offer services issue a document called a bill, which serves the purpose of an invoice.
2. Credit note
   This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer (credit buyer) to correct an overcharge. It is used to inform the buyer that the amount payable by him/her has been reduced
   An overcharge is an excess amount charged beyond the right price. Causes of overcharge may include;
   • Arithmetical errors like wrong addition
   • Price overcharges
   • Inclusion of wrong or unordered items in the invoice
   • Failure to deduct the allowable discounts
   • Return of goods (damaged goods)
   • Failure to note the return by the buyer of packing cases or containers used to deliver goods to him/her
   • Use of wrong price list.
     -The purpose of the credit note is to reduce the total invoice amount by the amount of the overcharge.
     -A credit note is usually printed in red to distinguish it from other documents.
     -Contents of a credit note include;
     • Name and address of the seller and the buyer
     • Credit note number
     • Date document is prepared
     • Description and value of goods returned by buyer (in case that was done)
     • Total overcharge
       
       Reasons why a seller would send a credit note to a buyer/circumstances under which a credit note is sent to a buyer.
       • When there is an overcharge in an invoice
       • When the original invoice had indicated items that were not supplied -When the buyer returns empty cases/crates that had been charged in the invoice.
       • When the buyer returns some goods to the seller
       • If the buyer was entitled to a discount which was not given or taken care of in the invoice.
3. Debit note
   This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to correct an undercharge on the original invoice. It is used to inform the buyer that the amount payable by him has been increased.
   -A debit note acts as an additional invoice.
   -An undercharge arises when amount charged on products is less than their right price.
   Causes of undercharge include:
   • Price undercharges on items
   • Arithmetic errors/mistaken in calculation
   • Omission of items in the invoice
   • Retention of crates and containers that were not involved by the buyer
   • Deductions of more discount than what was give/intended
     Circumstances under which a debit note will be sent to the buyer
     1. When there is an undercharge in the invoice
     2. If the buyer had been given a discount that was not due to him
     3. If some items had been omitted in the original invoice
     4. If the buyer decides to retain some empty containers or crates

Differences Between a debit note and a credit note

Documents Used At The Payment Stage

This is the final stage of a credit business transaction. It takes place after the invoice has been received and ascertained to be correct or where necessary, corrections made.
The documents used at the payment stage include;

1. Receipt 
   This is a document issued to the buyer by the seller as proof that payment has been made.
   -Payment can be done in cash, cheque, other forms of money or in kind -The receipt also serves as a source document for making entries in books of accounts.
   Contents of the receipt include;
   
   • Date of payment
   • Name of the person making payment
   • Name of person/institution receiving payment
   • Amount paid in words and figures
   • Means of payment
   • Receipt number
   • Signature of person issuing the receipt.
     -The issuance of a receipt by the seller to the buyer after receiving payment marks the end of the credit transaction between the seller and the buyer (where payment has been done in full)
     -A receipt serves the same purpose as the cash sale slip
2. Statement of Account  
   This is a document prepared by the seller and sent to the buyer, giving a summary of all the dealings/transactions between them during a particular period of time, usually a month. It has the following details;
   
   • Date when it was prepared
   • Name and address of the seller
   • Name and address of the buyer
   • Account number
   • Date column-where the date of each transaction is recorded
   • Particulars (Details)column-where the explanation of each transaction is shown
   • Money column
     
     • Debit column-increases in the amounts payable due to credit sales or under charge correction.
     • Credit column-Decrease in the amounts payable due to overcharges corrected or payments recorded.
     • Balance column-Amount owing after each transaction (Balance outstanding)
   • Any discounts allowed to the buyer
   • Date when the buyer is expected to clear the balance
   • Terms of credit e.t.c.
     -The statement of account enables the buyer to ascertain the correctness of the transactions which have taken place with the seller over the stated period.
3. IOU
   An IOU (I owe you) is a document written by the buyer and sent to the seller to acknowledge a debt.
   -It does not specify date when settlement will be made. -It acts as evidence that a debt exists.

Methods Of Payments For Goods And Services

These are the methods or ways the buyer may use to settle debts arising from a business transaction. These are various means of payments that can be used. These means of payments can be put into the following groups;

1. Cash
2. Means of payment provided by the post office
3. Means of payments provided by the commercial banks
4. Means of payments which arise from private arrangements between sellers and buyers
5. Other means of payment. E.g. Mobile transaction, Online payments like paypal

Cash

• This refers to the use of notes and coins to make payments. Currency notes and coins are issued by the central Bank of Kenya and are therefore legal tender
• Legal tender means everyone is obliged by law to accept them as a means of payment i.e. no one can refuse to accept them as they are backed by the law.Notes and coins are available in different denominations as follows; Coins; 5cents, 50cents, sh.1, sh.5, sh.10 and sh.40
  Notes; sh.10.sh.20, sh.50, sh.100, sh.200, sh.500 and sh.1000.
• Coins are suitable for settling small debts and are acceptable as legal tender up to a certain maximum e.g. 50cents coins the maximum is sh20 and sh.1 the maximum is ksh.100.

Advantages of cash as a means of payment:

1.  It is the only means of payment which is a legal tender
2. Convenient for settlement of small debts
3. Convenient to people with or without bank accounts
4. Cash is readily usable

Disadvantages of cash as a means of payment

1. Not convenient to carry around
2. Cash can be lost or stolen easily as it is readily usable
3. Payment is difficult to prove unless a receipt is issued

Circumstances under which cash payment is appropriate

1. Where the amounts involved are small
2. Where the payee (receiver) does not accept other means of payment
3. Where cash is the only means available
4. Where the payee requires cash(money) urgently
5. Where there is need to avoid expenses associated with other means of payments

Means Of Payments Provided By The Banks

Commercial banks are financial institutions that accept deposits to and withdrawals from them.
They also lend money to customers. Examples of commercial banks include: Commercial bank of Kenya, National bank of Kenya, Barclays bank, and Co-operative bank e.t.c
-There are various means of payments provided by the commercial banks. They are:

1. Cheques
2. Bank drafts/bankers cheques
3. Credit transfers
4. Standing orders
5. Travellers cheques
6. Telegraphic transfers
7. Debit cards
8. Electronic fund Transfer(E.F.T)

Cheques

This is a written order by an account holder with the bank (drawer) to the bank (drawee) to pay on demand a specified amount of money to the named person (payee) or the bearer

Parties to a cheque

1. Drawer-This is the person or institution who writes and issues the cheque.He is usually a current account holder with the bank
2. Payee-The person or institution to be paid
3. Drawee-The bank (where the drawer has an account) Details on a cheque; they include:
   
   • Date when it is issued
   • Name of the drawer
   • The name of the payee, except in bearer cheques
   • The name of the drawee(bank)and branch from where it is issued
   • Amount to be paid in figures and in words
   • The account number of the drawer
   • The signature of the drawer
   • The cheque number and bank code
   • The appropriate revenue stamps

Types of cheques

1. Open cheques
2. Crossed cheques
3. Bearer cheques
4. Order cheques

1. Open cheques
   This is acheque that can be presented for payment over the counter. You present it and cash is paid to you.
2. Crossed cheques
   This is acheque that bears two parallel lines on the face. This means the cheque cannot be cashed over the counter. The cheque is deposited in an account (payee’s account)
   The payee then withdraws the money from his/her account
   A crossed cheque can be opened by the drawer signing twice on its face. -A crossing can be general or special
   • General crossing-general crossings only contains the two parallel lines. This implies that the cheque will be paid through any bank in which it is deposited.
   • Special crossings-Has other instructions included in the crossing i.e;
     • Not negotiable-Means the cheque can be transferred by the payee to a third party, but he third cannot transfer the cheque (only the original payee can transfer the cheque)
     • Account payee only-Means the cheque should be deposited in the account of the payee.
     • Not transferable-Means there is no negotiation or transfer of the cheque
3. Bearer cheques-This cheque does not have the name of the payee written on it. The person presenting it to the bank is the one who is paid.
4. Order cheque-The cheque bears the name of the payee. The bank pays this particular payee the amount stated in the cheque after proper identification

Dishonouring a cheque

A cheque is dishonored if the bank refuses to pay and returns the cheque to the drawer.

-A cheque can be dishonored due to the following reasons:

1. Insufficient funds in the account
2. If the signature on the cheque differs from the drawers specimen signature in the bank.
3. If the cheque is stalc i.e. presented for payment after six months from the date of issue.
4. If the cheque is post dated-meaning the cheque is presented for payment earlier than the date on the cheque
5. If the amount in figures is different from the amount in words
6. If there are alterations on the cheque which are not countersigned by the drawer
7. If the cheque is torn, dirty or defauld making it illegible
8. If the account holder(drawer) is dead and the bank is aware of the fact
9. If the drawer instructs the bank not to pay the particular cheque
10. If the cheque contains errors which need to be corrected
11. If the drawer becomes bankrupt or insane
12. If the drawer has closed his/her account.

Advantages of using cheques  

1. They are more secure than notes and coins because if they are lost or stolen, they can be traced to the person who cashed them.
2. They are convenient to carry and can be used to pay large sum of money which would be otherwise inconvenient to pay using cash
3. They can be transferred to a third party to make payment/cheques are negotiable
4. Payment can be made by cheque without the need to travel to make payment
5. They provide a record of payment because of the counterfaits.The counterfaits acts as proof that payment has been made.
6. Under special circumstances, they can be cashed or discounted before maturity.

Disadvantages of using cheques

1. Cheques can be dishonored
2. Requires the payee to go to the bank and in some cases to have an account
3. The drawer pays some charges e.g. charges for the cheque book
4. Can only be issued by an account holder/the drawer must have an account
5. They are not readily acceptable by everybody
6. They do not provide immediate cash

Circumstances under which a cheque is appropriate as a means of payment

• Where the amount of money involved is large
• Where the policy of the business demands so
• Where a cheque is the only means available
• Where there is need to avoid other risks associated with other means of payments

Bank drafts/Banker’s cheques

-This is a cheque drawn on a bank i.e. a cheque drawn by one bank to another requesting the latter bank to pay a named person or institution a specified sum of money and charge it to the drawing bank
-It can also be drawn by a bank on the request of a customer. The customer fills in an application form obtained from a bank and hands it over to the bank together with the money she wants to transfer and a commission for the service.
-The bank then prepares the cheque and gives it to the applicant who can then send it to the payee
-A bank draft has the drawing bank’s guarantee for payment. It is therefore more readily acceptable than personal cheques.
-It is suitable when urgency is desired in the payment as it is more readily acceptable.

Credit Transfer

This is a means of payment provided by commercial banks to their current accounts holders who want to pay many people using one cheque/at the same time
-One cheque is drawn and is usually accompanied by a list of the people to be paid, the amount to be paid to each person and the addresses of the bank branches where the payment is to be made.
-The bank then ensures that a credit transfer is affected to the various bank branches and each payee is paid
-A credit transfer is usually used by employers to pay salaries to their staff members.

Standing Order

This is an instruction to a bank by an account holder to pay a named person or an organization a fixed amount of money at regular intervals over a specified period of time or until stopped
-It is a very useful means of payment for business people as it enables them to regularly pay their recurrent bills e.g. water, insurance, electricity, loan payment, hire purchase payment e.t.c

Traveler’s Cheques

This is a cheque drawn by one bank to another requesting the latter to pay a specified sum of money to a named bearer, who usually would have bought that cheque from issuing bank. The cheque holder pays the value of the cheque plus the charges for the services to the issuing bank.
-Travellers cheques are usually issued in fixed denominations and are very convenient for travel purposes, hence their name. They enable a person to travel without having to carry a lot of cash. The cheques are also readily acceptable as a means of payment.

Telegraphic Transfers

This is a method /means of transferring money offered by commercial banks to anybody who wants to send money to another. The sender is required to fill an application form and provide the following information among others:
-His/her name -The amount of money to be remitted
-Name of the payee -The bank where the money would be paid. The applicant is charged a commission and telegraph fee. The paying bank sends a telegram to the payee who has to identify himself/herself before the payment is made The method is fast and safe.

Debit Cards

These are plastic cards issued by financial institutions e.g. banks that enables a person to purchase goods and services from any business that accepts them. Debit cards are used to make payments from money held in ones accounts and are therefore an alternative to cash payments. Examples are ATM cards.

Electronic Fund Transfer (E.F.T)

EFT is a method of transferring money from one account to another where computers are used. The sender is required to fill an electronic fund transfer form provided by the bank which instructs the bank to transfer money from his/her account to a named account.
Information is then sent to the payee’s bank electronically and the amount in the account is increased accordingly. The method is very fast.

Means Of Payments Provided By The Post Office

The post office provides means of payments that can be used to transfer money from one person to another.
The means of payments provided by the post office to facilitate payments includes,

1. Money orders
2. Posta pay
3. Postal orders
4. Postage stamps
5. Premium bonds

1. Money orders
   A money order facilitates the transfer of money from one person to another through the post office (and/or bank)
   A money order is usually for a specified sum of money usually purchased with cash from the post office
   A person wishing to send money using this method visits a post office and completes an application form. Some of the details contained/given in the form include:
   
   • The amount of money to be remitted
   • Name of the payee
   • The name of the post office where the money order will be cashed
   • Name and address of the sender
   • Whether the money order is to be ordinary or sent by telegraph
   • Whether the sender wishes to be informed if the money has been paid
   • Whether the money is to be paid through a bank account or at the post office counter.
     The application form, money to be remitted and commission for the service is handed to the post office cleark who prepares the money order and gives it to the sender who may post it or send it to the payee.
     -Telegraphic money orders, the post office sends a telegram to the payee informing him/her to go to the post office and claim the money. -Before payment is made, the payee must;
   • Identify himself/herself by producing an ID card
   • Identify the person who sent the money.
     -The sender of the money is left with a counterfoil which serves as evidence that money was sent and it can be used to reclaim the money if it did not reach the payee
     -Money order may be open or crossed. A crossed money order bears two parallel lines drawn diagonally on its face and must be deposited in the bank account of the payee. It cannot be cashed over the counter at the post office.
     -An open money order can be presented for payment at the post office counter.
     
     Circumstances under which money order is appropriate
     
     1. Where it is the only means available
     2. Where other means are not acceptable
     3. Where there is need to avoid inconveniences or risks associated with other means
2. Posta pay
   This is an Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) service offered by the postal corporation of Kenya, for sending and receiving money instantly from various destinations both locally and internationally.
   -The person sending money fills in a form called ‘send form’ giving the following details;
   
   • Name, address and telephone number of sender
   • Name, address and telephone number of receiver
   • Pay city, town and location of the receiver
   • Signature of the sender
   • Amount to be sent
     -The sender hands over the form, the amount of money to be sent and the commission to the post office clerk for processing
     -The transfer is done via the internet through a machine that gives a twelvedigit number for the transaction called the ‘Transaction control number’(TCN).The sender then conveys this number, amount sent and pay location to the recipient and instructions to the recipient to visit the named post office for payment. This message is usually conveyed through the quickest means possible such as a telephone call
     -The sender is given a copy of the processed ‘send form’ as proof that money has been sent. The post office retains the original for record purposes. -When the receiver visits the post office, he/she will fill a ‘receiver form’ giving the following details;
     
     1. The transaction number(i.e. the twelve-digit number)
     2. The expected amount
     3. The name, address and telephone number of the sender
     4. The city town or location of the sender
     5. Signature of the receiver
        The receiver then identifies himself or herself by producing an ID card or passport before receiving the money.
        
        Advantages of using Posta pay as a means of payment
        
        1. Accessibility-Posta pay outlets (post offices) are located countrywide to eliminate movement over long distances to get money
        2. Ease of use-Sending or receiving money is easy as one only needs to fill a form which is processed immediately
        3. Speed-the transfer of money is instant (fast)
        4. Security-Confidentiality in the transmission of money is provided and money is only paid to the person intended
        5. Convenience-Posta pay services are offered for long hours during the day and pay locations are conveniently located
        6. Affordability-Posta pay services are relatively affordable as large amounts can be sent at reasonable costs.
3. Postal orders
   -Postal orders are sold by the post office for the purpose of remitting money -They are available in fixed denominations of sh.5, 10.20,40,60,80,100 and 200
   -On buying a postal order, the sender pays for both the face value of the postal order and a commission charged for the service
   -Postal orders just like money orders are issued with counterfoils that the sender will keep as evidence of remittance in case the person to whom he/she remits the money does not receive it.
   The sender writes the name of the payee on the postal order as a safety measure.
   Payment to the bearer can be made in any post office with postal order facilities
   Postal orders may also be crossed or open (see crossed and ordinary money orders)

Other Means Of Payment

1. Credit cards
2. Mobile money transfer services e.g. M-pesa.

1. Credit cards(plastic money)
   
   • These are plastic cards that enable a person to purchase goods or services on credit from any business willing to accept the card
   • They are both a means of payment and a term of payment
2. Mobile money transfer services e.g. M-pesa
   
   • This is a means of money transfer services provided by mobile phone service providers to their customers (subscribers)
   • It can only be used to transfer money between people subscribed to the same mobile phone network e.g. from one safaricom subscriber to another safaricom subscriber, Airtel to Airtel e.t.c
   • The sender must register for the money transfer service and is issued with a PIN (personal identification number)
   • When money is sent, both the sender and the receiver will receive a message confirming the transfer.
   • A person can send money anytime anywhere so long as he/she has value in his/her m-pesa, pesa pap account.
   • Each mobile service provider has a range of value that can be transferred using this method.
   • A small transaction fee is charges for the transfer i.e. for sending and withdrawing
     
     Benefits of mobile money transfer services
     
     1. Confidentiality-The secret PIN protects the value in the customer’s account
     2. Ease of use-The service is easy to use as the agents assists to carry out transaction
     3. Speed-Money transfer is an instant service conveyed to the receiver via the short message service(SMS)
     4. Convenience-The service is convenient to both the sender and the receiver, as they only need to go to the nearest agent (money can be sent/deposited or received anywhere)
     5. Accessibility-The agents e.g. m-pesa agents are located in most parts of towns and also in rural areas. Money can hence be sent and received anywhere and anytime.
     6.  Affordability-The service charges are very low for registered users and very affordable for non-registered users
     7. Security-Relatively secure when the sender uses the correct phone number of the receiver

Importance Of Financial Documents In Record Keeping In Business

1. Knowing Your Financial Situation - You need to know where your company stands daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and annually. Are you making money, is your client base increasing or decreasing, do you have enough money in the bank to meet your obligations, are you meeting the goals you set for your business? Without this knowledge, you have little or no control over your business. You need to know how much inventory you have on hand, how much you need to order when you need to order, the credit terms your suppliers offer, the balance in your bank account to cover your payments for running your business such as rent, utilities, office supplies, inventory, employees’ wages, and payroll taxes. Also, you are likely to be in non-compliance with local, state, and federal regulations without proper controls on your finances.
2. Meeting Your Tax Obligations
3. helps to maximize all the expenses you claim and reduce your tax obligations
4. makes it quicker to prepare your accounts at year-end
5. gives you the information you need to run your business and help it grow
6. helps you plan for tax payments
7. helps identify the strengths and weaknesses in your business
8. helps manage changes and improvements in your business
9. will help you plan to meet financial commitments such paying creditors or employees
10. makes it easier to get a loan or sell your business
11. avoids over/under tax payments
12. helps identify if your business is liable for paying VAT to KRA
13. makes it easier to distribute profits to shareholders as dividends or for partnerships where both profits and losses have to be shared.

• Government And Business
  • Reasons For Government Involvement in Business
  • Roles/methods Of Government Involvement In Business
• Taxation In Kenya
  • Purposes/reasons For Taxation
  • Principles of Taxation

Government And Business

• Government involvement in business activities is one of the commercial duties it owes its citizens. It is the one that provides the necessary environment for investments to be undertaken by itself, or by the local and foreign investors. This, the government may do in various ways, these include;
  
  1. Producing goods and services
  2. Distributing goods and services
  3. Advising producers and traders
  4. Promoting trade and economic development
  5. Protecting consumers against exploitation by producers and traders
  6. As a consumer of goods and services

Reasons For Government Involvement In Business

The following are the major reasons for the government’s involvement and participation in business activities;

1. To prevent exploitation of the public by private businesspersons especially in the provision of essential goods and services such as sugar, transport, communication etc. the Kenya Bureau of standards (KEBS) regulates the quality of goods consumed in Kenya.
2. To provide essential goods and services in areas where private individuals and organizations are unwilling to venture because of low profits/ high risks involved.
3. To provide essential goods and services which private organizations and individuals are unable to provide due to the large amount of initial capital required b e.g. generation of electricity, establishment of airlines etc.
4. To attract foreign investment by initiating major business projects
5. To stimulate economic development in the country e.g. by providing social services
6. To provide goods and services which are too sensitive to be left in the hands of the private sector e.g. provision of firearms.
7. To create employment opportunities by initiating projects such as generation of electricity.
8. To prevent foreign dominance of the economy by investing in areas where the locals are not able to
9. To redistribute wealth where returns are very high
10. To prevent establishment of monopolies.

Roles/methods Of Government Involvement In Business

The government gets involved in business activities through the following methods:

1. Regulation
   This refers to Rules and restrictions the government requires business units to follow in their business activities. Through this method, the government ensures high quality goods and services and puts in control measures to protect consumers from exploitation. The government regulation measures include;
   
   1. Licensing
      A license is a document that shows that a business has been permitted by the government to operate. It is usually issued upon payment of a small fee. Licensing is the process of issuing licenses to businesses. Some of the reasons why the government issues licenses include;
      
      • Regulating the number of businesses in a given place at any given time to avoid unhealthy competition.
      • To control the type of goods entering and leaving the country.
      • To ensure there are no illegal businesses.
      • To ensure that traders engage only in trade activities that they have been licensed for.
      • To ensure that those who engage in professional activities meet the requirements of the profession.
      • To raise revenue for the government.
   2. Ensuring standards/ enforcing standards; The government regulates business activities by setting standards that businesses should and ensuring that the standards are adhered to. To achieve this purpose, the government has established bodies such as;
      
      • Kenya bureau of standards (KEBS) whose main responsibility is to set standards especially for the manufactured goods and see to it that the set standards are adhered to/ met. Goods that meet such standards are given a diamond mark of quality, to show that they are of good quality.
      • The ministry of public health to ensure that businesses meet certain standards as concerning facilities before such businesses can be allowed to operate. Such standards may include clean toilets, clean water and well aerated buildings.
   3. Legislation; The Government may come up with rules and regulations (laws) that regulate business activities e.g. banning hawking in certain areas, matatus required to carry certain number of passengers e.t.c.
2. Training
   The government takes keen interest in training and advising people in business about business management strategies and better ways of producing goods and services. The government offers these services through seminars and courses. This is mainly done by the Kenya Business Training Institute (K.B.T.I).
3. Trade promotion
   This is a government initiated and supported policy to encourage local business people to enter into business. This is aimed at increasing the volume and variety of goods and services traded in. Trade promotion is classified as either external trade promotion or internal trade promotion.

Legal Requirements for Starting and operating a simple business in Kenya

• Business Permit
  A business permit indicates that you are licensed to operate by the local county government.
• KRA PIN
  A Kenya Revenue Authority PIN is among the legal requirements that you need to start a business in Kenya. It is used to facilitate tax compliance with all Kenyans and businesses required to file their tax returns yearly.

Taxation In Kenya

Tax: is a compulsory payment by either individuals or organizations to the government without any direct benefit to the payer.
Taxation-refers to the process through which the government raises revenue by collecting taxes.

Purposes/reasons For Taxation

1. Raising revenue for government expenditure. This is the main reason for taxation.
2. Discouraging /controlling consumption of certain commodities e.g. alcohol and cigarattes which are considered to be harmful.
3. Discouraging importation of certain commodities in order to protect local industries. This is done by imposing heavy taxes on such commodities.
4. Controlling inflation. Taxation reduces money supply by reducing peoples ‘disposable’ income thereby controlling inflation.
5. Reducing inequality in income distribution; this is done by taxing the rich heavily and using the finances raised in provision of goods and services that benefit the poor.
6. Influencing locations of businesses. This is done by taxing businesses located in urban areas heavily and those in rural areas lightly hence businesses moving to rural areas.
7. Correcting unfavorable balance of payments. High taxes are imposed on imported commodities thereby discouraging their importation leading to an improvement in the balance of payments.
8. To protect the key selectors of the economy such as the agricultural sector, by stimulating their growth.

Factors that determine the amount of money raised through taxation

1. Distribution of incomes
2. Social and political factors
3. Honesty and efficiency of tax authorities
4. Citizens level of real income
5. Economic structure of the country i.e. relative size of the country’s commercial and subsistence sectors.

Principles Of Taxation

These are the characteristics that a good tax system should have. They are also referred to as the cannons of taxation.

A good tax system should be;

• Equitable/principle of equity-Every subject of the state should pay tax in proportion to their income.
• Certain/principle of certainty-The tax that an individual should pay should be clear in terms of the amount, time and manner in which it should be paid. The government should also be fairly certain of the amount of tax expected so that planning can be easier.
• Convenient/principle of convenience-Tax levied ought to be convenient to both the contributor and collector, it should be levied at a time when the payer has money and mode of payment should be convenient to both the payer and the payee
• Economical/principle of economy-The cost of collecting and administering the tax should be lower than the tax so collected.
• Flexible/principle of flexibility-It should be readily adaptable to changing economic times i.e. when the economic conditions of the people improve it should give raised revenue e.g. VAT
• Ability to pay/non-oppressive-A tax system should be designed in a way that the amount charged is not too high to the extent that the contributors are unable to pay or is discouraged from working hard.
• Diversified/principle of diversity-There should be different types of taxes so that the tax burden is on different groups in the society. This also ensures that the government has money at all times.
• Simplicity-A good tax system should be simple enough to be understood by each tax payer. This will motivate them to pay tax.
• Elastic/principle of elasticity-The tax system should be able to generate more revenue for the government by targeting items of mass consumption.

• Business Activities
  • Needs and Wants
  • Scarcity, Choice, Scale of preference and opportunity cost
  • Types Of Business Activities
  • Business Objectives
• Goods and Services
  • Types of Goods and Services
  • Classification of Goods and Services
• Economic Resources
  • Characteristics Of Economic Resources
  • Types of Economic Resources in Kenya
  • Sustainable Ways Of Using Economic Resources
  • Importance Of Economic Resources
• Business Communication
  • Importance of Business Communication
  • Business Communication Methods
• Production of Goods and Services
  • Importance of Production
  • Characteristics of Factors of Production
• Marketing of Goods and Services
  • Types of Markets
  • Marketing
  • Consumers
  • ICT platforms for marketing Goods and services

Business Activities

Needs And Wants

Scarcity, Choice, Scale of preference and opportunity cost

The basic concept or elements of economics are:

• wants,
• scarcity,
• scale of preference,
• choice and
• opportunity cost.

WANTS

Wants simply means the desire or wish to own goods or services that give satisfaction. Goods include things such as cars, radios, food, houses, books, etc., (that is tangible commodities), while services includes hair dressing, the services of an actor, etc(that is intangible commodities). Want s are also called ENDS.

As these basic needs are satisfied, other needs will arise. That is why we say that human wants are insatiable. This is because human wants are unlimited while resources used in satisfying them are limited.

SCARCITY

Scarcity refers to the limited available resources used in satisfying the unlimited human wants.

These resources are scarce relative to their demand. It is as a result of scarcity of resources that needs the study of economics very essential in order to find alternative uses of these scarce resources. The available resources cannot satisfy all human wants. Since human wants are unlimited or insatiable relative to the available resources, we have to choose the most pressing ones and leave others that are less important because resources are scare.

As a student you will need to buy school materials, e.g exercise books worth #100.00 but you have only #50.00. it can be seen that the money you have (#50.00), which is your resources, will not be sufficient to buy all you need. The available resources within the environment can never at any time be in abundance to satisfy all human wants.

If resources were to be unlimited or abundant, no economics problem would arises and there would be no need for a study of economics. Scarcity is the central or basic economic problems

SCALE OF PREFERENCE

Scale of preference refers to a list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of their relative importance.

A scale of preference refers to a list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of priority or importance. This aids decision-making. The most pressing needs are ranked first followed by the less pressing ones. In other words, it is a list showing the order in which we want to satisfy our wants arrange in order of priority.

The drawing of scale of preference will make it easier for choice to be made. In order to achieve maximum satisfaction with limited resources at their disposal, an individual, firm and unsatisfied wants in order of priority.

Each individual is assumed to have a scale of preference. This is because economics theory assumes that people always behave rationally and would satisfy their most pressing want first.

For example, a student might rank his wants in following order according to their level of importance:

1. Pair of school uniform
2. Exercise books
3. Wrist watch
4. Dictionary
5. Scientific calculator
6. An arm chair

If he is to choose between items 1 and 4, he chooses the first. Scale of preference of individuals, firms and the government differ from time to time.

IMPORTANCE OF SCALE OF PREFERENCE

• Ranking of needs
• Financial prudence
• Identification of highest priority
• Rational choice
• Efficient utilization of limited resources
• Optimum allocation of resources
• Maximization of satisfaction

The importance of scale of preference can be paraphrased this way also:

• It helps individuals to rank their needs in order of importance.
• It helps us to manage our resources properly.
• It helps both individuals and government to identify the most important needs.
• It enhances optimum allocation of resources.
• It helps individuals, firms and government in the efficient utilization of resources.
• It helps economic agents to maximize their satisfaction.
• It helps individuals to make rational decision.

CHOICE

Choice can be defined as a system of selecting or choosing one out of a number of alternatives. Human wants are many and we cannot satisfy all of them because of our limited resources.

We therefore, decide which of the wants we can satisfy first. Choice arises as a result of numerous human wants and the scarcity of the resources used in satisfying these wants.

OPPORTUNITY COST

Opportunity cost is also known as a real cost or time cost.

The concept of opportunity cost is used in economics to express cost in terms of foregone or sacrificed alternatives. Opportunity cost means the alternative foregone or sacrifice made in order to satisfy another want. It is the satisfaction of one’s want at the expense of another want.

Types Of Business Activities

People carry out different business activities in order to earn income.

Business activities are activities which involve the provision of goods or services with an aim of earning a profit.

Activities done without the intention of making profit are referred to as

non-business activities. Business activities may be grouped into the following seven categories:

1. Extraction
   This involves obtaining goods from their natural setting e.g. mining, farming, lumbering, fishing, quarrying e.t.c
2. Processing
   This involves the conversion of raw materials into more useful products without combining it with other goods. Examples here
   include milling/grinding flour, refining oil, tanning of skins and hides, conversion of iron into steel e.t.c
3. Manufacturing
   This involves combining different raw materials to come up with one final product. Such activities include bread baking, making a table e.t.c
4. Construction
   This involves building of structures such as bridges, ships, aeroplanes, houses, roads, railways e.t.c
5. Distribution of goods
   This refers to the activities involved in moving goods from where they are produced to where they are needed. People
   who carry out distribution are called distributors. Examples of distributors are wholesalers and retailers.
6. Trade-Activities in this category involve the buying and selling of goods with a view of making a profit. People involved in trade are called traders.
7. Provisions of Services-Activities in this category involve human acts which could be mental or physical. These include activities such as haircutting, hair styling, car-washing, nursing, teaching, driving, and entertaining e.t.c.

Purpose of Business activity

• Provides goods and services from limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants
• Scarcity is the result of the economic problem – limited resources and unlimited wants
• Choice is necessary for scarce resources. This leads to opportunity costs
• Specialization is required to make the most out of sources

Business activity

• Combines factors of production to create goods and services
• Goods and services satisfy peoples’ wants
• Employs people and pays them wages so they can consume other products

Business Objectives

All businesses have objectives or aims to achieve. Their objectives may vary depending on the type of business and the situation the business is in. The most common objectives are:

• Profit: Profit is what keeps a company going and is the main objective of most businesses. Normally a business will try to obtain a satisfactory level of profits so they do not have to work long hours to pay too much tax.
• Increase added value: Value added is the difference between the price and material costs of a product. E.g.: If the price when selling a pen is Ksh. 3 and it costs Ksh.1 in material, the value added would be Ksh.2. However, this does not take in account overheads and taxes. Added value could be increased by working on products so that they become more expensive finished products. One easy example of this is a mobile phone with a camera would sell for much more than one without it. Of course, you will need to pay for the extra camera but as long as prices rise more than costs, you get more profit.
• Growth: Growth can only be achieved when customers are satisfied with a business. When businesses grow they create more jobs and make them more secure when a business is larger. The status and salary of managers are increased. Growth also means that a business is able to spread risks by moving to other markets, or it is gaining a larger market share. Bigger businesses also gain cost advantages, called economies of scale.
• Survival: If a business do not survive, its owners lose everything. Therefore, businesses need to focus on his objective the most when they are: starting up, competing with other businesses, or in an economic recession.
• Service to the community: This is the primary goal for most government owned businesses. They plan to produce essential products to everybody who need them.
  These business objectives or aims can conflict because different people in a business want different things at different times.

Goods And Services

Types Of Goods And Services

We desire to have all the things to satisfy our present and future wants. Thus, our desire is for all those things that satisfy our wants.

All these things are either material goods or services. If something is not wanted by anybody it will not be called a good or service.

Therefore, we can divide the things that we wants into two categories:

1. Goods and
2. Services.

Goods are material things wanted by human beings. They can be seen or touched. Services are non-material things. These cannot be seen or touched only their effects are felt. When we are hungry, we take food. When we fall sick, we take medicines. When we study, we use book, notebook, pen, paper etc. All these are examples of goods which satisfy some of our wants. All the things which satisfy human wants are good.

However, wants for haircut, washing of cloths, mending of shoes, stitching of cloths, studying in a school or a college etc. are not satisfied by goods. These are satisfied by the services performed by a barber, washer man, cobbler, tailor and teacher etc. So some of our wants are satisfied by goods and some by services. Hence, all the human wants can be satisfied by goods and services.

Classification of Goods and Services:

Goods and services are of many types. However, these can be classified into some broad groups.
These are discussed below:

1. Free Goods and Economic goods:
   The goods which have unlimited supply and are provided as free gift of nature. The goods which are not man-made and do not have to pay anything to get them. These goods are known as ‘Free Goods’. For example, air, sea, water, sunlight, sand in the desert etc. On the other hand, goods like vegetables, grains, minerals, fruits, fishes etc. which are neither man-made nor unlimited supply of nature are known as ‘Economic Goods’ All these goods are sold and purchased in the market only.
2. Free Services and Economic Services:
   Services which cannot be bought in the market and which are only rendered out of love, affection etc. are known as ‘Free Services’. For example, all services given by the parents to their children are free services. However, all the services that can be bought in the market are ‘Economic Services’. Services rendered by doctors, teachers, lawyers, barbers, cobblers etc. are the example of economic services.
3. Consumer Goods and Capital Goods:
   The goods which are directly used by the consumer for the purposes of consumption are known as ‘Consumer Goods’ The example of consumer goods are bread, biscuit, butter, jam, rice, fish, egg, shoes, shirts, fan, book, pen, cooking gas etc. On the other hand, all the goods which are not directly used to satisfy consumption but which are used in further production are called ‘Producer Goods’ or ‘Capital Goods’. The examples are seeds, fertilizers, tools, machines, raw materials etc.
4. Consumer Services and Producer Services:
   When services are used directly by consumers to satisfy their wants, they are called consumer services. When services are used by producers to produce other goods and services, they are called producer services. When the tailor stitches our shirt, it is a consumer service However when the tailor stitches a shirt for a readymade garments shop, the service rendered by him is a producer service.
5. Single Use and Durable Use Goods:
   Goods (both consumer goods and producer goods) which are only used or consumed for single time or only once are known as single use goods. Bread, milk, fruits, vegetables etc. are the example of single use consumer goods. On the other hand, seeds, fertilizers, raw materials etc. are the example of single use producer goods.
   Some goods (both consumer goods and producer goods) can be used for a considerable period, that is, they can be used again and again. They are called durable use goods. For example, table, chair, cloths, shoes etc. are the durable use consumer goods. On the other hand, tube wells, tractors, pump-sets etc. are the example of durable use producer goods,
6. Private Goods and Public Goods:
   On the basics of ownership goods can be classified into two groups. All the goods which are owned by private bodies are called private goods. For example, a car, a house, a motor­bike, a mobile phone, books, a television set etc. are the private goods.
   There are large number of goods which are collectively owned by the society, the public or the government. These are called public or government goods. For example, roads, bridges, hospitals, government schools etc. are the public goods or the social goods or the government goods.

Economic Resources

Characteristics Of Economic Resources

• Have utility - they have ability to be used
• Have money value - They have a value at which they can be exchanged for ownership
• Have alternative use - They can be put into different uses.
• Scarce in supply - They are not available in sufficient quantities
• Can be combined - They can be combined so as to produce different goods and services
• Can change ownership - Differennt resources can be used together.
• They are distributed - they are available in varying quantities at different places.

Types Of Economic Resources In Kenya

What Are Economic Resources?

Economic resources are the different factors of production used to produce all goods and services in the economy. Economic theory is primarily concerned with allocating these resources so that the production of goods and services is done most efficiently and effectively.

There are four general types of economic resources:

• Land or natural resources
• Labor
• Capital
• Entrepreneurial ability

Sustainable Ways Of Using Economic Resources

Economic sustainability is the practice of conserving natural and financial resources to create long-term financial stability. A system that's sustainable can last far into the future with minimal negative impacts.

In finance, this can mean reducing the worldwide consumption of valuable resources to ensure they're available to future generations to create financial stability and wealth. For example, by reducing the usage of fossil fuels and focusing on alternative fuel sources, companies, governments and consumers can help reduce the global impact of emissions and pollution from fossil fuels.

Here are some examples of economic stability:

Alternative energy

Alternative energy sources, such as wind power, solar power and hydropower, can offer a more sustainable, clean and affordable solution to energy needs. Much of the world depends on fossil fuels like coal, oil and gasoline, which have a limited supply and create greenhouse gas emissions.

Alternative energy sources depend on infinite natural processes or resources, which may make them more sustainable and affordable in the long term. Reducing fossil fuel consumption can help reduce tax burdens for consumers, decrease the costs of environmental impacts and create more energy equity among low-income populations, which can increase economic productivity.

Sustainable agriculture

Many farms are adopting sustainable agricultural practices to reduce soil degradation, which occurs from over-farming, and to reduce animal product consumption. Reducing food consumption and focusing on regenerative farming can help improve soil health, crop yields and the quality of farmed food and resources.

Regenerative farming is a practice farmers use to rotate crops for better soil health, instead of farming the same crops, like corn, all year. Improving soil health and reducing animal product consumption can help keep food costs low, reduce carbon emissions and environmental damage and encourage better habits.

Recycling and pollution reduction

Recycling and reducing pollution is a common economic and environmental stability practice that can help increase the value of materials. For example, a company producing aluminum cans can sustain operations by recycling used cans and creating molten aluminum for recasting, instead of mining for aluminum ore.

This practice can reduce the company's environmental impact, saving the region both cleanup and restoration costs and reducing the organization's mining costs. Reducing pollution can also help reduce worldwide cleanup and restoration costs and the costs of climate change.

Sustainable fisheries

Creating more sustainable fisheries can help reduce the environmental and economic impact of overfishing the oceans. Side effects of overfishing can include population declination, bycatch, or catching other species along with fish, and fishing equipment made of plastics and other materials discarded in waterways.

Adopting more sustainable practices, like reducing fish consumption worldwide and reducing bycatch and fishing pollution, could create a more sustainable fishing environment, resulting in more stable profits and economic health for the fishing industry. It can also help ocean populations recover, which is crucial for ecosystems across the globe.

Resource Mapping

Resource mapping is a strategy for identifying and analyzing the programs, people, services, and other resources that currently exist in the country. This information can help leaders better assess the needs of the country and to make informed decisions about where to focus change efforts.

Mapping Steps

1. Reach consensus on the parameters of the map—select a goal to map.
2. Select the data to be collected based on these parameters—determine what types of resources you would like to collect.
3. Develop tools to collect your data.
4. Collect data with help from stakeholders.
5. Conduct a community (or environmental) scan.
6. Synthesize, analyze, and interpret your data.
7. Communicate your findings.
8. Set priorities.
9. Develop related products.

Importance Of Economic Resources

Resources are significant because:

1. They satisfy human wants both individual and social,
2. They are a source or possibility of assistance,
3. They are a means of development and support,
4. They are an expedient,
5. They have capacity to take advantage of opportunities, and
6. One relies on them for aid, support and supply.

Business Communication

Communication is an essential element in the success of any business. The process of transferring information from one person to another, within and outside the business environment, is termed as ‘Business Communication.’ The term ‘Business Communication’ is derived from general communication which is associated with business activities. In other terms, communication between business parties or people for business-related tasks is considered as ‘Business Communication.’

Business Communication includes different aspects like marketing, public relations, customer relations, corporate and interpersonal communication, etc.

Basic elements of Business communication:

• Sender
• Business information
• Receiver
• Feedback

Importance Of Business Communication

1. Helps in increasing productivity: Effective business communication increases the productivity of staff by boosting up teamwork. It creates a trustworthy and understanding environment among employers and employees. Effective communication is related to cooperating with employees and understanding their needs and desires. By doing so, employees are able to accomplish their tasks more effectively and efficiently. Also, the scope of doing mistakes or errors during their work minimizes due to effective communication.
2. Helps in increasing customers: Customers are an important part of any business and effective business communication can facilitate in attracting new customers and retain the current customers. A well-defined marketing strategy and public relations campaign run by an organization generates the interest of customers in its goods or services and helps in building the corporate image in customers.
3. Enhances business partnerships: Business Communication also improves partnerships in business. It plays a significant role in dealing with external business clients or vendors. Vendors may be required to communicate on products regularly for improvements. Also, an effective and harmonious relationship with other businesses determines the further success of an organization. A business unit that has developed its image as an entity for easy partnership through its effective communication can attract other business units for forming business relationships with them.
4. Facilitates innovations in business: Effective business communication helps in business innovations as well as it facilitates employees to convey their ideas and suggestions openly. Similarly, at the time of launching any new product in the market, effective communication ensures the performance of the sales team, market acceptance of the product, fast delivery of products in the market, etc.
5. Information exchange: Business communication is required by an organization for exchanging information with internal and external stakeholders. This helps in achieving its goals effectively.
6. Preparation of plans and policies: Through effective business communication, organizations can make their plans and policies properly. Relevant information is required for preparing these plans and policies. Through communication, different managers source information through reliable channels.
7. Helps in solving problems or issues: Through different communication channels, managers get information about different routine and non-routine issues and based upon that they can take required actions to sort out those issues.
8. Facilitates decision-making: Effective decisions require up-to-date information. Using effective communication, managers can acquire information from different sources and can utilize it for making correct decisions.
9. Reduces chances of conflicts: Through effective communication different business parties can exchange information in a smooth way. This results in fewer conflicts, controversies, arguments between them.

Business Communication Methods

Different methods of communicating in a business are as below:

1. In-person (Face-to-Face) Business Communication: In-person communication is the most common and preferred method of business communication. As it is generally in the form of meetings or conferences which is face to face communication format. This requires refined in-person skills. This method also includes non-verbal communication i.e. body language. While having a conversation between two or more people in business, body language like gestures, facial expression, etc. also play a vital role in communicating a person’s attitude towards others.
   
2. Communication by email system: An e-mail has become the most widely used communication system in any business. Due to its feature of sending and receiving mass or multiple messages at a time, email is considered as one of the preferred methods in business communication. It also increases efficiency as emails can be sent and responded in fast mode. The conversation through email can be among two or more than two people and is the best substitute for formal face to face meetings as discussions can be done in an email system.
   
3. Web conferencing: In the web conferencing method of business communication, the internet is being used for communication in meetings, conferences, presentations, seminars, and imparting training. It includes features like sharing of files, screens, real-time chatting, recording, etc. This can be considered as the most effective way of interacting with people sitting at different locations. Web conferencing is done by using the phone (teleconferencing) or video equipment (videoconferencing).
   
4. Written communication: Written business communication is a formal and detailed form of communication than other methods. Different written communication tools include formal letters, brochures, posters, etc.
   
5. Other methods: There are other business communication methods like an instant messaging system. This technology is easy to use as one can easily connect with people while working offsite and have conversations without waiting so long. They also include WhatsApp, phone calls.

Production Of Goods And Services

Production: Refers to the creation of goods and services or increasing their usefulness through activities such as transporting them to where they are required. People who are involved in production of goods and services are referred to as producers.

Importance of Production

• To produce is independence.
  If you don’t produce, you will have to consume what has been produced.
  In this case, you have no choice but to the available options. People choose to be free and independent.
• The need for various goods
• Availability of goods and services: Production helps to ensure that goods and services are made
• Increase in wealth of people: Production assists people to accumulate wealth as a result of continuous employment. importance of production
• Increase in export potential: Production also assists a state or nation to boost her export of goods and services to other nations.
• Acquisition of skills: The engagement of people in production leads them to acquire special skills

Characteristics of Factors of Production

Fig 5.1. The organization of Production

Meaning: Factors of production refer to agents, components or resources which are combined together to produce goods and services. There are four factors of production. These are:

Labour

Labour - is skillful:  Labour becomes skillful through education and training.

• Labour is a human factor: Labour is a human factor hence its supply can easily be controlled== importance of production
• Labour requires motivation: For labour to perform efficiently and increase its productivity, it must be motivated in one way or the other. importance of production
• Labour is not predictable: Labour as a factor of production cannot be easily predicted.
• Labour is not fixed: The supply of labour, unlike land, is not fixed as it varies in quantity and quality.
• Labour is perishable: Knowledge can diminish overtime as a result of continued unemployment, under-employment, age and death.
• Labour controls other factors of production: Labour controls and combines all other factors of production to make them more meaningful to the society.
• Labour has initiative: Labour can act on its own initiative.

Types of labour

• Unskilled
• Semi-skilled
• Skilled
• professional

Classification Of Factors Of Production

Characteristics Of Land As A Factors Of Production

Types of land

• Residential
• Commercial
• Recreation
• Cultivation
• Extraction
• Uninhabitable

1. Fixed supply: The total land area of earth (in the sense of the surface area available to men) is fixed. Therefore, the supply of lands is strictly limited. It is, no doubt, possible to increase the supply of land in a particular region to some extent through reclamation of land from sea areas or deforestation.
2. No cost of production: Since land is a gift of nature, it has no cost of production. Since land is already in existence, no costs are to be incurred in creating it. In this sense, land differs from both labour (which has to be reared, educated and trained) and capital (which has to be created by using labour and other scarce resources or by spending money).
3. Differences in fertility: Another important feature of land is that it is not homogeneous. All grades (plots) of land are not equally productive or fertile. Some grades of land are more productive than others. And Ricardo argued that rent arises not only due to scarcity of land as a factor but also due to differences in the fertility of the soil.
4. Mobility:Land is not geographically mobile. But, it is occupationally mobile. In most parts of India, for example, land has many alternative uses. It might be used for farmland, roads, rail­ways, airlines, public parks, playgrounds, resi­dential housing, office buildings, shopping complex, and so on. Some of the land, for example, in hill area, of say, Shillong, or Darjeeling, has an extremely limited degree of occupational mobility, being useful perhaps for sheep grazing, golf course or as a centre of tourism.
5. Return: The income received by the owner of land is known as rent. It may be noted that rent is usually paid for something more than the use of land or another natural resource, but includes also an element of payment for another factor which is involved in making the resource available in a usable form.

Characteristics of Capital as a factor of production

• Capital is manmade factor of production
• Its mobile
• It’s a passive factor of production

Types of capital

• Fixed
• Working
• venture

Characteristics of an entrepreneur

An entrepreneur is a person who brings factors of production in one place. He uses them for the production process. he is the person who decides:

• What to produce
• Where to produce
• How to produce

A person who takes these decisions along with the associated risk is an entrepreneur.

X-tics of an entrepreneur

• He has imagination
• He has great administrative power
• An entrepreneur must be a man of action
• An entrepreneur must have the ability to organize
• He should be a knowledgeable person
• he must have a professional approach

Consumer concerns addressed in the production of goods and services

Learners to check on this

Marketing of Goods and Services

• A market can be defined as a place where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods, services and other relevant information is called a market. Both these parties can meet in a city, state, province, country and region. The market may be a physical or virtual.
• The one party (seller) sells a product or service to a buyer for money benefits. Most of the time there are more than single buyers and seller in the marketplace. The value and prices of product and service are based on the law demand and supply in the market.

Types of Markets

Physical Markets. Any physical market is a place where buyers and sellers physically meet that involve both parties in a transaction in exchange for money. Few good examples are departmental stores, shopping malls and retail stores

Virtual Markets / Internet Markets. Todays’ business environment such type of markets are increasing on a fast track. It is a place where the seller offers goods and services via online platform i.e. internet. Buyers and sellers are not required to physically meet or interact. Examples are Freelancer.com, Amazon.com.

Auction Market. An auction market is a place where sellers and buyers indicate the lowest and highest prices they are willing to exchange. This exchange takes place when both the sellers and buyers agree on a price. A good example is the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE).

What is Market Size

Market size refers to the total number of people in a specific market who has the potential to buy and sell products and services. Whenever companies launch a new product they are very interested to know the market size. For any market, two factors are very important:

• Total number of buyers and sellers
• Total money in the market on the annual basis

Marketing

Marketing is a process by which a product or service is introduced and promoted to potential customers. Without marketing, your business may offer the best products or services in your industry, but none of your potential customers would know about it. Without marketing, sales may crash and companies may have to close.

Types of Marketing

Where your marketing campaigns live depends entirely on where your customers spend their time. It's up to you to conduct market research that determines which types of marketing -- and which mix of tools within each type -- is best for building your brand. Here are several types of marketing that are relevant today, some of which have stood the test of time:

• Internet marketing: Inspired by an Excedrin product campaign that took place online, the very idea of having a presence on the internet for business reasons is a type of marketing in and of itself.
• Search engine optimization: Abbreviated "SEO," this is the process of optimizing content on a website so that it appears in search engine results. It's used by marketers to attract people who perform searches that imply they're interested in learning about a particular industry.
• Blog marketing: Blogs are no longer exclusive to the individual writer. Brands now publish blogs to write about their industry and nurture the interest of potential customers who browse the internet for information.
• Social media marketing: Businesses can use Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, and similar social networks to create impressions on their audience over time.
• Print marketing: As newspapers and magazines get better at understanding who subscribes to their print material, businesses continue to sponsor articles, photography, and similar content in the publications their customers are reading.
• Search engine marketing: This type of marketing is a bit different than SEO, which is described above. Businesses can now pay a search engine to place links on pages of its index that get high exposure to their audience. (It's a concept called "pay-per-click" -- I'll show you an example of this in the next section).
• Video marketing: While there were once just commercials, marketers now put money into creating and publishing all kinds of videos that entertain and educate their core customers.

The 4 Ps of Marketing

Essentially, these 4 Ps explain how marketing interacts with each stage of the business.

Consumers

A consumer is any individual or group that uses goods or services. Generally, this means an individual who pays for goods or services, although sometimes the good or service is not paid for, but is instead received as a gift or favor. Usually, the term is used when referring to the demand side of the market. For example, in economics, it is often said that consumers are influenced by price when they make their buying decisions.

Following are the things that customers look at for before buying a product.

1. Price: The price of the product is the first thing that almost 80% of the customers look at before buying a product. Because every customer has their own budget and they usually tend to spend within the budget unless they get some extraordinary quality.
2. Experience: Nowadays, everyone is busy and they want to buy things which are easily available and also there are so many alternatives available in the market for a certain product. Therefore, it is important to make the shopping experience as well as the quality of the product excellent. So, they don’t move to some other product.
3. Design: Design of the product should be attractive.
4. Functionality: The product should have all the functionalities that a customer expects while buying a product.
5. Convenience: The product and services should be convenient for the customer, otherwise, he/she will not buy the product.
6. Reliability: The product should be reliable and it should meet the customer’s needs every single time.
7. Compatibility: The product should be compatible with the other products that the customer is already using.

Following is a list of different types of customers.

1. Need-based customers :
   
   These customers shop for only specific products when they need them. They already know the section they are heading to when they enter a store. They usually don’t require an assistant to choose a product because they usually have knowledge about the product they want to buy. Therefore, it is very important to approach them with a planned strategy.
2. Loyal customers :
   
   These types of customers are very important for a business. This segment of the customers should be kept satisfied. They not only stay loyal to the company but also praise and recommend the product to their family and friends. Therefore, they also help the company to market its product by “word -of – mouth” free of cost. Usually, this segment of customers is small and they hardly make 20% of the total customers, but they are responsible for generating the maximum part of the total revenue of the company.
3. Discount customers :
   These are the types of customers who never buy a product on full price. They always look for a discount on the product they want to buy. Such customers never shop for anything off-sale. These types of customers make the biggest portion of total customers of a company. Discount customers are the least loyal customers and they easily move on when getting better offers by some other company.
4. Impulsive customers :
   
   Impulsive customers’ segment is a bonus segment for any business, as these customers don’t shop as per their need or because of ongoing sale. The shopping of these types of customers is highly influenced by their current mood. They usually tend to buy a product, if, at the time of shopping, they find it useful and good at that point in time.
5. Potential customers:
   Potential customers are not your customer yet, but they just need a little bit of convincing and assistance to make a purchase. These types of customers need a little bit of encouragement and attention before buying your product. To deal with such customers, you should show them some value and assist them by providing information about the products they are interested in.

Factors to consider when selecting a suitable market for goods and services

1. The product to be sold or produced
2. Personnel to manage the business
3. Amount of finance and other resources required
4. The market to be served (customers)
5. Types of employees required
6. Projection (level of achievement in future in terms of profit)
7. The name for the business

An attractive market has the following characteristics:

• It is sizeable (large) enough to be profitable given your operating cost. Only a tiny fraction of the consumers in China can afford to buy cars. However, because the country’s population is so large (nearly 1.5 billion people), more cars are sold in China than in Europe (and in the United States, depending on the month). Three billion people in the world own cell phones. But that still leaves three billion who don’t (Corbett, 2008).
• It is growing. The middle class of India is growing rapidly, making it a very attractive market for consumer products companies. People under thirty make up the majority of the Indian population, fueling the demand for “Bollywood” (Indian-made) films.
• It is not already swamped by competitors, or you have found a way to stand out in a crowd. IBM used to make PCs. However, after the marketplace became crowded with competitors, IBM sold the product line to a Chinese company called Lenovo.
• Either it is accessible or you can find a way to reach it. Accessibility, or the lack of it, could include geographic accessibility, political and legal barriers, technological barriers, or social barriers. For example, to overcome geographic barriers, the consumer products company Unilever hires women in third-world countries to distribute the company’s products to rural consumers who lack access to stores.
• The company has the resources to compete in it. You might have a great idea to compete in the wind-power market. However, it is a business that is capital intensive. What this means is that you will either need a lot of money or must be able to raise it. You might also have to compete with the likes of T. Boone Pickens, an oil tycoon who is attempting to develop and profit from the wind-power market. Does your organization have the resources to do this?
• It “fits in” with your firm’s mission and objectives. Consider TerraCycle, which has made its mark by selling organic products in recycled packages. Fertilizer made from worm excrement and sold in discarded plastic beverage bottles is just one of its products. It wouldn’t be a good idea for TerraCycle to open up a polluting, coal-fired power plant, no matter how profitable the market for the service might be.

ICT platforms for marketing Goods and services

They include:

• Online advertising – many businesses advertise through banners on websites. It provides to the customers quickly and easy response.
  
• Email marketing – it’s a form of direct marketing. It’s very fast and less expensive.
• Social media marketing – it’s a collection of online communication channels. It’s a community based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. Examples include: Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Tiktok
  
• Blogging –
  
• Target marketing- it’s about attracting a customer who will buy what you are selling.
  

Advantages

• Anywhere, anytime marketing
• Cost effective
• Fast

By using ICT, we can market anywhere, anytime in the world without being their physically.

• Marketing products on the internet costs less than marketing them through a physical retail outlet.
  
• The internet provides an important platform for building relationships with customers and increasing retention levels
  
• It is very fast
• User can get easily information about product.

• Introduction to Business Studies
  
  • Components of Business Studies
  • Importance Of Business Studies
  • Career Opportunities In The Field Of Business Studies
• Money
  • Uses Of Money In Daily Life
  • Themes And Symbols In The Kenyan Currency
• Personal Goals
  • General Goal Setting Tips
  • Starting to Set Personal Goals
• Talents and Abilities
  • Ways Of Nurturing Talents
  • Personal Talents and Abilities
  • Ethical Issues Related To Use Of Talents And Abilities In Business
  • Importance Of Nurturing Talents And Abilities

Introduction to Business Studies

• Business: Any activity that is carried out by an individual or an organization concerning provision of goods and services with a view to making profit.
• Business studies: Is the study/examination of the business activities in society. These activities are related to the production of goods and provision of services.
  
  • It can also be defined as the study of activities that are carried out in and around production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Components of Business Studies

Business studies consist of the following disciplines

1. Commerce
2. Accounting
3. Economics
4. Office practice
5. Entrepreneurship

• Commerce
  This is the study of trade and aids to trade. Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services or money. Aids to trade are human activities (services) that assist trade to take place.
• Economics
  This is the study of how human beings strive to satisfy their endless wants using the available scarce resources.
• Accounting
  This refers to a systematic way of recording business activities which all used for decision making.
• Office practice
  This refers to all activities that are carried out in an office e.g. communication, filling, clerical work, reproduction of documents etc.
• Entrepreneurship
  This is the study of activities involved in the process of identifying a business opportunity and acquiring the necessary resources to start and run a business. The person who carries out these activities is referred to as an entrepreneur.

Importance Of Business Studies

Some of the benefits of learning business studies include:

1. Assists the learners/members of the society to acquire knowledge and awareness of business terminologies which are necessary when discussing business issues such as profit and loss.
2. Assists the individuals in appreciating the role of business in society/in provision of goods and services.
3. It enables the learners to acquire basic knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the development of self and the nation by starting and operating business.
4. Equips the members of society with knowledge and skills necessary to start and run a business comfortably.
5. Makes the members of society to appreciate the need for good business management practices
6. Assists individual to acquire self-discipline and positive attitude towards work
7. Equips individual with abilities to promote co-operation in society through trade
8. Enables the individual to understand the role of government in business activities
9. Equips individuals with abilities to understand the role of communication and information technology in modern business management
10. Helps the individuals to develop positive attitudes towards the environment
11. Equips the individual with knowledge and skills required to evaluate business performance
12. It helps individual to develop various intellectual abilities such as inquiry, critical thinking, analysis, interpretation, rational judgement, innovation and creativity.
13. It enables learners to acquire skills for wise buying and selling.
14. It creates a firm foundation for further education and training in business and other related fields.
15. It enables one to understand and appreciate the basic economic issues that affect the society such as increase in prices of goods and services.

Career Opportunities In The Field Of Business Studies

• Auditor.
• Logistics analyst.
• Human resources specialist.
• Accountant.
• Operations analyst.
• Marketing manager.
• Financial advisor.
• Financial analyst
• Entrepreneur

Money

• whatever serves society in four functions: as a medium of exchange, a store of value, a unit of account, and a standard of deferred payment.
• Money is power if you utilize it with knowledge. Money is dangerous if you are greedy for money and utilize it without thought. – Vijay Sharma

Uses Of Money In Daily Life

• First, money serves as a medium of exchange, which means that money acts as an intermediary between the buyer and the seller. Instead of exchanging accounting services for shoes, the accountant now exchanges accounting services for money. This money is then used to buy shoes. To serve as a medium of exchange, money must be very widely accepted as a method of payment in the markets for goods, labor, and financial capital.
• Second, money must serve as a store of value. In a barter system, we saw the example of the shoemaker trading shoes for accounting services. But she risks having her shoes go out of style, especially if she keeps them in a warehouse for future use—their value will decrease with each season. Shoes are not a good store of value. Holding money is a much easier way of storing value. You know that you do not need to spend it immediately because it will still hold its value the next day, or the next year. This function of money does not require that money is a perfect store of value. In an economy with inflation, money loses some buying power each year, but it remains money.
• Third, money serves as a unit of account, which means that it is the ruler by which other values are measured.
• Money fulfills your personal and family needs and desires:
  Money has the power to buy goods and services. With money, a person can fulfill his daily living needs and desires. With money, you can buy food, clothes, a home, a car, holiday tour packages, and gifts. With money, you can buy a high-speed internet connection and good quality equipment for work and business.

Key security features of the Kenyan Currency

Themes And Symbols In The Kenyan Currency

Personal Goals

• Goals are defined as the desired states that people seek to obtain, maintain, or avoid. Personal goals are goals related to your work, relationship, finances, and other aspects of life.

There are three types of goals- process, performance, and outcome goals.

• Process goals are specific actions or ‘processes’ of performing. For example, aiming to study for 2 hours after dinner every day. Process goals are 100% controllable by the individual.
• Performance goals are based on personal standard. For example, aiming to achieve a 3.5 GPA. Personal goals are mostly controllable.
• Outcome goals are based on winning. For a college student, this could look like landing a job in your field or landing job at a particular place of employment you wanted. Outcome goals are very difficult to control because of other outside influences.

Process, performance, and outcome goals have a linear relationship. This is important because if you achieve your process goals, you give yourself a good chance to achieve your performance goals. Similarly, when you achieve your performance goals, you have a better chance of achieving your outcome goal.

General Goal Setting Tips

• set both short- and long-term goals
• set SMART goals
• set goals that motivate you
• write your goals down and put them in a place you can see
• adjust your goals as necessary
• Recognize and reward yourself when you meet a goal

Set all three types of goals- process, performance, and outcome – but focus on executing your smaller process goals to give you the best chance for success!

• specific – highly detailed statement on what you want to accomplish (use who, what, where, how etc.)
• Measurable- how will you demonstrate and evaluate how your goal has been met?
• Attainable- they can be achieved by your own hard work and dedication- make sure your goals are within your ability to achieve
• Relevant- how do your goals align with your objectives?
• Time based- set 1 or more target dates- these are the “by whens” to guide your goal to successful and timely completion (include deadlines, frequency and dates)

Be Clear About Your Purpose in Life

First, be clear about your purpose in life. Having a clear vision in life gives you direction. You know where you are coming from and where you are going. The destination is definite, and this gives you a foundation for your goal setting.

Why These Goals?

Having a foundation for goal setting gives you a destination. The next step is to look at the goals you have in mind and ask yourself why these goals in specific. Let’s say you want to get from Nairobi to Mombasa. You can walk, run, hire a taxi, take a bus, take a train or take a flight.
In the end, you will have to choose one means of transport to get you to Mombasa. If you take a bus, ask yourself why the bus? Why not walk or take a flight? If you can answer the why in your goals. And hopefully, your answer will not be because everyone is doing it, then you are on the right path.

Do The Goals Motivate You?

Do you get motivated when you look at your goals? Remember your why. If the answer to your why is because everyone is doing it, the motivation is going to low. When challenges set in and everyone gives up, you will give up with them or give up when others are still on the move.
Set goals that motivate you. Motivation has to come from the heart. Remember, this is a journey. It is not a destination in itself. Your inner drive will keep you moving when the going gets tough.

You Goals Must Be Specific To You

Your goals have to be specific to you. Do not set random goals just because that is what is expected from you. Let’s say you have a target to meet at the end of the month set by your company. The targets are not specific to you. In most cases, they are distinct to your department but general to you and your colleagues.
A successful person will take the targets set and personalize them. What is it you want to achieve at the end of the month as far as the goals set for your team are concerned? Do you want to meet the exceptions, or do you want to exceed them? Set your weekly and daily goals to reflect what you want to achieve as an individual.

Goals Have To Be Relevant To Your Higher Purpose In Life

Your goals must be relevant to your higher purpose in life. If not, you will deviate from your purpose or vision. Set goals to reflect, and feed your cause. The danger in working on plans that don’t align with your purpose or mission, you end up working for other people.

Proverbs 16:3 New International Version (NIV)

Commit to the Lord whatever you do, and he will establish your plans.

Starting to Set Personal Goals

You set your goals on a number of levels:

• First you create your "big picture" of what you want to do with your life (or over, say, the next 10 years), and identify the large-scale goals that you want to achieve.
• Then, you break these down into the smaller and smaller targets that you must hit to reach your lifetime goals.
• Finally, once you have your plan, you start working on it to achieve these goals.

This is why we start the process of setting goals by looking at your lifetime goals. Then, we work down to the things that you can do in, say, the next five years, then next year, next month, next week, and today, to start moving towards them.

Step 1: Setting Lifetime Goals

The first step in setting personal goals is to consider what you want to achieve in your lifetime (or at least, by a significant and distant age in the future). Setting lifetime goals gives you the overall perspective that shapes all other aspects of your decision making.
To give a broad, balanced coverage of all important areas in your life, try to set goals in some of the following categories (or in other categories of your own, where these are important to you):

• Career – What level do you want to reach in your career, or what do you want to achieve?
• Financial – How much do you want to earn, by what stage? How is this related to your career goals?
• Education – Is there any knowledge you want to acquire in particular? What information and skills will you need to have in order to achieve other goals?
• Family – Do you want to be a parent? If so, how are you going to be a good parent? How do you want to be seen by a partner or by members of your extended family?
• Artistic – Do you want to achieve any artistic goals?
• Attitude – Is any part of your mindset holding you back? Is there any part of the way that you behave that upsets you? (If so, set a goal to improve your behavior or find a solution to the problem.)
• Physical – Are there any athletic goals that you want to achieve, or do you want good health deep into old age? What steps are you going to take to achieve this?
• Pleasure – How do you want to enjoy yourself? (You should ensure that some of your life is for you!)
• Public Service – Do you want to make the world a better place? If so, how?

Spend some time brainstorming these things, and then select one or more goals in each category that best reflect what you want to do. Then consider trimming again so that you have a small number of really significant goals that you can focus on.

Talents and Abilities

For many people, the words “talent” and “ability” are interchangeable. Understanding the difference between them can make all the difference in how we live and work. Here at Pro/spur, one of the first lessons we share with our players is recognizing their talent vs. their ability. So what is the difference?

Talent is what you’ve been given.

Ability is how you grow the talent you’ve been given.

Right now, there are more than 8,000 pro players in Minor League baseball. Do you know how many of those players have enough talent alone to make it to the Big Leagues and stay there? The answer: not that many.

Ways Of Nurturing Talents

Create an Open Culture

Firms are a product of multiple people’s contributions. Each worker should feel like their words have weight and that their input is valued.
Everything starts with the workplace culture, which gives new starters the confidence to stick around and keeps more experienced personnel grounded and loyal. Encourage employees to speak up if they have any concerns or thoughtful ideas.

Develop Mentoring Schemes

Mentoring is an enormous part of nurturing talent. However, finesse is required in how your company approaches it. Vague instances of encouragement aren’t enough to keep workers motivated and performing well.

Introduce Automation

Workers with many responsibilities can soon become overwhelmed. The most overworked staff members may find little time to focus on their own professional development.
Automation can ease these burdens somewhat. These technologies can assume many of the admin tasks a worker needs to do. Signing paperwork, scheduling updates, responses to routine emails – these are all tasks automation can oversee instead of the employee. Work-related stress can be reduced as a result.

Offer Flexibility

Nurturing talent can’t be done under overly rigid work practices. Employees need to grow both personally and professionally and to do so effectively, they need a level of control.

Keep Innovating

Your business needs to aspire to be greater constantly. Only then can you expect your workers to adopt a similar attitude.
Of course, your business may be more concerned about surviving rather than thriving these days. Irrespective of your circumstances or the economic conditions you’re facing, your company must keep pushing to innovate and excel within its industry.

Personal Talents and Abilities

• Communication.
• Interpersonal skills.
• Leadership.
• Problem-solving.
• Time management.
• Adaptability.
• Critical thinking.
• Organization.

Five kinds of talent categories:

• Self-conceptual talents – like self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, and self-confidence.
• Social talents – like social awareness, communication, relationship management, collaboration, and influence.
• General talents – like language skills, mathematical abilities, reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and learning abilities.
• Specific expertise – like strategic thinking, arts, writing, research, sports, design, storytelling, and kinesthetic abilities.
• Fun talents – any cool talents such as exceptional taste, ventriloquism (ability to make your voice appear from somewhere else or with delay), and hypermobility, to name a few.

Ethical Issues Related To Use Of Talents And Abilities In Business

Ethical issues in business occur when a decision, activity or scenario conflicts with the organization’s or society's ethical standards. Both organizations and individuals can become involved in ethical issues since others may question their actions from a moral viewpoint.

1. Discrimination and harassment
   Two of the most significant ethical issues that HR professionals and managers face are discrimination and harassment. The consequences of discrimination and harassment in the workplace can negatively impact the finances and reputation of the organization. Many countries have anti-discrimination laws to protect employees from unfair treatment. Some anti-discrimination areas include:
   
   • Age: Organizations and internal policies cannot discriminate against employees who are older.
   • Disability: To prevent disability discrimination, it's important to accommodate and provide equal treatment for employees with mental or physical disabilities.
   • Equal pay: Equal pay focuses on ensuring that all employees receive equal compensation for similar work, regardless of religion, gender or race.
   • Pregnancy: Pregnant employees have a right not to be discriminated against on account of their pregnancy.
   • Race: Employees should receive equal treatment, regardless of ethnicity or race.
   • Religion: Employees' religious beliefs should not affect how anyone within the organization treats them.
   • Sex and gender: An employee's sex and gender identity should not influence their treatment while working at an organization.
2. Ethics in accounting practices
   Laws require organizations to maintain accurate bookkeeping practices. Unethical accounting practices are a serious issue, especially for publicly traded companies. The legislation specifies financial report requirements aimed at protecting shareholders and consumers. All organizations have to keep accurate financial records and pay taxes to attract investment and business partners regardless of the size of the company.
3. Nepotism or favoritism
   As a hiring manager or HR professional, you may want to employ an acquaintance or family member because of your connection to them. Even if you adhere to recruitment policies to ensure a fair process, some employees may still consider this as nepotism or favoritism. Favoritism occurs when managers treat some employees better than others for no professional reason. This can reduce productivity and job satisfaction in other employees, which may negatively impact the entire organization.
4. Workplace health and safety
   All employees have a right to a safe working environment and work conditions.

Importance Of Nurturing Talents And Abilities

Nurturing internal talent can benefit your business in many ways:

Facilitate success. Nurturing the talent you already have allows you to facilitate opportunities for cross-training, career development and networking.

Create a culture of innovation and empowerment. Nurturing your existing talent creates a culture of innovation and empowerment, in which employees know they are valued and they are motivated to strive for excellence

Open leadership opportunities. Nurturing the talent of your teams enables you to foster a culture in which leadership opportunities abound.

• Meaning Of State, Kingdom And Empire
  • The Ancient Egypt
  • The Great Zimbabwe
  • The Kingdom of Kongo
  • Contributions Of Early African Civilisation To The Modern World
• Social Organisation Of Selected African Communities Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Ogiek Community Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Zulu Community Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Asante Community Up To 1900
• Human Diversity And Inclusion
  • Personality Attributes Which Make Individuals Different From Others
  • Peace and Conflict Resolution 

Meaning Of State, Kingdom And Empire

State
A territory is considered as an organised political community under one government
Empire
An extensive group of semi autonomous states ruled by one ruler
Kingdom
A state or territory ruled by a king or queen

The Ancient Egypt

Factors that led to growth of Ancient Egypt Civilization

1. Presence of river nile
   It the annual flood of river nile and the use of shadoof method of irrigation boosted agriculture
2. Early technology
   It ushered in the bronze stage where copper and tin were used to make simple tools such as chisels and needles
   Artisans also made pots for storage and cookery purposes using potter’s wheel
3. Population
   High population in Ancient Egypt provided ready manpower and market
4. Strong military and leadership
   They ensured growth of the kingdom through conquests and assimilation of conquered neighbours into the empire
5. Use of hieroglyphic
   The formal writing helped keep reliable and accurate records in religion, government and history
6. Use of the calendar
   Tracking of days and monitoring events such as annual flooding of the nile, planting and harvesting period
7. Specialised workers
   They worked in various institutions. They helped in keeping recods in the Egyptian empire.
   They recorded harvest, finances and history

The Great Zimbabwe

Great Zimbabwe was a city near Masvingo in the central part of the modern day Zimabwe, Mozambique and Botstwana.
It existed between 1000BC to 1500BC
Zimbabwe is a shone word meaning “stone houses”
Great Zimbabwe had a centralized government with hereditary kings. This system of government led to the rise and growth of the kingdom

Factors that led to the growth of the Great Zimbabwe civilization

1. Strong agricultural economy
2. Existence of several minerals deposits such as gold, copper
3. Trade
4. Strong leadership
5. Acquisition of firearms in exchange of goods
6. Strong army
7. Religious beliefs brought them together

The Kingdom Of Kongo

Factors that led to the growth of kingdom of Kongo

1. Strategic location of the kingdom
2. Favourable climate and the kingdom its closeness to congo river which supported agriculture throughout the year
3. Arrival of Portuguese
4. Religion
5. Trade
6. Christianity

Locating ancient kingdoms on a map of Africa

Pupil’s activity
Page 77-78

Contributions Of Early African Civilisation To The Modern World

• Modern civilisation owes ts current development to the ancient civilization.
• Ancient Egypt was the beginning of building designs and construction of permanent buildings we have today.
• The hieroglyphics form of writing in Egypt used to keep records developed into the modern writing and education
• The knowledge of planning and prediction of seasons based on calendar started in the early civilisation. Today it is has been developed further to include weather forecasting in predicting accurate changes.
• The industrial development in the ancient kingdoms was based on simple skill. Copper and tin were used in ancient Egypt to make items. Today most of the industries use metals and alloys to make construction and infrastructural equipment.
• The modern irrigation technology barrows a lot from the ancient irrigation techniques such as shadoof. This has been applied in the agricultural sector
• Tools such as jembes/hoes used in farming today were developed in the ancient civilisation
• The political structure of modern government resembles the early civilisation goverment

Social Organisation Of Selected African Communities Up To 1900

Locating areas by the Ogiek, Zulu and Asante communities in Africa

PUPILS’ ACTIVITY
PAGE 81

Social Organisation Of The Ogiek Community Up To 1900

Ogiek are southern nilotic speakers
Most of them live in the county of nakuru, mau and mt elgon forests

• Family was the basic unit among the ogiek community
• The lineage was responsible for enforcing traditional law and order
• Father was head of the family
• The ogiek were polygamous
• There was division of labour among the ogiek community
  Men provide for the family needs, provide leadership and security
  Women worked in homestead, bear children and do household chores
  Children helped with household chores, cultivating in farms and artisanship
• The ogiek were a patriarchal society- men owned property and passed it to their sons
• The ogiek believed in one supreme being called Tororet
• They believed also in the existence of ancestral spirits called Oiik
• They had diviners who could foretell the future using supernatural powers
• Both boys and girls were initiated
  Boys ceremony was called tumdo op went
  Girls ceremony was called tumbo op tiipik
• Intiated boys of the same age group sets known as ipinda
• The ogiek used plants and herbs from forest for treating diseases

Social Organisation Of The Zulu Community Up To 1900

Zulu are Ngni people, bantu speaking
They occupy Kwazulu natal province in South africa
In the Ngumi languages izulu means heaven or weather
The zulu clans referred to as the isizwe
The zulu society was organised into parilineal sibs. The sibs were further divide into lineages which were composed of descendants of a common ancestor
Most households comprised extended families who lived in one household called kraal
Men inherited everything. Inheritance was patrilineal
The zulu people were polygamous. Men married many wives and lived with them with the extended family in the kraal.
Men paid dowry in terms of cows and gifts during the weeding day umabo
The zulu community believed in Umhlanga or reeds dance ceremony
Beadwork was a prominent wttire that worn at the Umahlanga
Beadworks was a sign of communication
It also symbolised wealth status of a person
Zulu believed in one God called uNkulunkulu
The controlled day to day human life of the Zulu community
The zulu had traditional mediceine men who treated the sick

Social Organisation Of The Asante Community Up To 1900

Asante are Akan speaking people
They live in the central part of the Modern day Ghana
Are organsised into clans whch is headed by a chief
Each clan speaks its own dialect of the Aken language
They believe in one supreme creator called Nyame
Ancestors were believed to connect people to Nyame
Asante empire leader was called Asatehene
He also acted as a spiritual leader
Omamhene and chiefs were all religious leaders who presided over religious ceremonies
Golden stool was th symbol of national unity in the Aasnte empire
It symboised ones and authority from the Asantehene
It was based in Kumasi, the capital of Asant empire
Odwira festival was an annual ceremony
They believed in the spirits of the departed rulers
Asante were socially stratified into 5 main divions
1^st division – king and those close to the king
- Lived in the capital of Kumasi
- Were wealthy and lived in luxury
2^nd division – consisted of the chiefs and top officials who assisted the king in enforcing law and order
3^rd division – those who had acquired a lot of wealth hence respect in the society
4^th division – comprised of ordinary farmers, traders and fishermen
5^th division – the lowest class was for the slaves
Asante families were extebded and matrilineal – mother’s brother was the legal guardian of her children
Asante were experts in form of decoration, logos, arts, sculture and pottery
These were known as Adinkra symbols

Comparing the social organisation of thr Ogiek, Zulu, and Asante community up to 1900

Human Diversity And Inclusion

Personality Attributes Which Make Individuals Different From Others

Personality attributes are qualities or characteristics that differentiate the character, action and attitude of a person from one another

Desirable and undesirable personality attributes in a multicultural society

Peace and Conflict Resolution

Peace
A state of calmness when there is no war
Conflict resolution
This is the process or act of solving or settling a disagreement.

Peace and conflict for personal well being