Livestock Production V (Poultry) - Agriculture Form 4 Notes

• Introduction
• Parts of an Egg
• Egg Candling
• Incubation
  • Selection of Eggs for Incubation
  • Methods of Incubation
• Brooding and Rearing of Chicks
  • Sources of Chicks
  • Brooding
• Poultry Rearing Systems
  • The Extensive Systems
  • Semi-Intensive
  • Intensive System
• Stress and Vices in Chicken
  • Cause of Stress in Poultry
  • Control of Stress
  • Vices
• Marketing of Poultry Products
  • Marketing of Eggs
  • Poultry Meat

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Introduction

• Poultry industry in Kenya has developed tremendously due to the use of artificial incubation and brooding and easy availability of hybrid birds, both eggers and broilers.
• Poultry production has become an easy source of income and food for the rural as well as the urban communities.
• The term poultry includes domestic birds such as turkeys, ducks, geese, pheasants, doves and pigeons.
• Of late ostrich farming has become a lucrative activity.
• Poultry production starts with incubation of eggs.

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Parts of an Egg

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Shell

• Forms 10-12% of the whole egg content.
• Made of calcium and phosphorus.
• Protects the inner egg contents.

Shell membrane

• Made of inner and outer membranes.
• Lining of the egg shell.
• Constitutes 1 % of the total egg content.

Albumen (egg white)

• About 55-60% of the total egg content.
• It is divided into chalaza, thick and thin albumen.
• Chalaza holds the egg yolk in position.
• Albumen serves as food for the chick.

Yolk

• 30-33% of the total egg content.
• Supply embryo with nutrient

Germinal disc -The embryo which develops into a chick if fertilized.

Vitelline membrane - Gives the yolk its round shape.

Air sac

• Keeps the egg fresh by allowing gaseous exchange.
• Provides oxygen for the embryo

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Egg Candling:

• This is the practice of determining the internal qualities of an egg by examining it against a light source.

Procedure

• The egg is placed on a hole made on a .cardboard box.
• This is called a candling box.
• A source of light is placed in the box directly under the egg.
• The observer then looks through the egg against the source of light below.
• Abnormalities on and within the egg can be seen through the translucent shell.

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Incubation

• Involves the provision of fertile eggs with the proper condition for embryonic development.

Selection of Eggs for Incubation

• Should be fertile.
• Should be of medium size about 55- 60gms in weight.
• Should have smooth shell.
• Should be oval shaped.
• Should not be cracked.
• Eggs should be clean to ensure that pores are open.
• Should not have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots and double yolk.         .
• Eggs should not be more than 5 days old.
• Eggs should be fresh that is collected within one week.

- Internal egg qualities can be determined through the egg candling process.

Methods of Incubation

Natural Incubation

• This involves the use of a broody hen which sits on the eggs to provide them with conditions necessary for hatching.
• Takes 20-21 days.
• The hen is given about 10-15 eggs.

Signs' of Broodiness in Poultry

• Tendency to sit on an egg after laying.
• Moulting of the hen.
• Making some noise at the laying nests.
• Feathers are raised.
• It becomes aggressive when disturbed.
• It stops laying.

Preparation and Management of Natural Incubation

• The hen is given "China eggs" to sit on to induce broodiness.
• When broody the hen should be provided with a nesting nest or a saucer­shaped nest scooped on the ground.
• The nest shall be lined with soft bedding and fertile eggs provided.
• The eggs are set in the evening or night.
• The bird is dusted to control external parasites.
• The hen is allowed t hour outside to feed and exercise everyday.
• Broken eggs should be removed immediately.
• The hen should not be disturbed.

Advantages of Natural Incubation

• It is cheap.
• High hatchability.
• Low risk involved.
• Useful in small scale production.
• Less skill is required.
• Less laborious.

Disadvantages of Natural Incubation

• Egg production is low because the hen will not lay eggs during incubation.
• It is not possible to plan when to incubate.
• If the hen dies the eggs will be destroyed.
• If the hen deserts the eggs or refuses to sit on them the farmer will incur losses.
• Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen.
• Diseases and parasites could easily be transmitted to the chicks.

Artificial Incubation

• This is the use of artificial device known as an incubator for hatching eggs.

Conditions Necessary for Artificial Hatching of Eggs

• Temperature - maintain at 37.5°C-39.4 °C throughout to control the rate of embryonic development of the chick. High or low temperatures are lethal.
• Ventilation - Good air circulation.
• Carbon dioxide: oxygen ratio maintained at 0.03%:21 %.
• Relative humidity - Maintained at 60%.
• High humidity leads to marshy chicks
• low humidity the chick may stick to the shell.
• Turning of Eggs 
  • Done 3-4 times a day to facilitate uniform distribution of heat for uniform development of chick.
  • Turn slowly 180 ° clockwise along the axis to avoid breaking the blood v
  • Some incubators have automatic turning mechanism.
• Cleanliness - cleaning and disinfecting the incubator with formaldehyde solution.

Advantages of Artificial Incubation

• It facilitates large scale production of chicks.
• Incubators are always ready when needed.
• Artificial incubation leads to higher egg production because broodiness in the hens is not required, so there is more time for laying eggs.

Disadvantages of Artificial Incubation

• High initial capital in buying an incubator.
• High level of management and attention is required.
• It is not economical for only a small number of eggs.
• High risks involved in turning the eggs.

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Brooding and Rearing of Chicks

• Brooding is the rearing of day old chicks upto 8 weeks old for the layer chicks and 2 weeks for the broiler chicks.
• For successful brooding the source of the chicks should be considered.

Sources of Chicks

The following factors should be considered:

• The reputation of the supplier (hatchery).
• Time taken by the chicks in transit.
• Proper sexing and breed identification.

 

 

Brooding

Natural Brooding

• A hen is allowed to take care of the chicks.
• She provides them with warmth and security.
• She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them.

Advantages

• It is cheap.
• Less labour is needed.
• Suitable for small scale.

Disadvantages of Natural Brooding

• Not possible to produce large numbers of chicks.
• The hen goes off laying during brooding time.
• Only possible when a broody hen is available.

Artificial Brooding

• The chicks are raised artificially in a structure known as a brooder until they are 8 weeks old.

Brooder Requirements

• Temperature - should be about 35°C in the 15th week and reduced to 21°C by the 8^th week.
• Litter - wood shavings which are capable of absorbing 60% moisture without showing wetness should be used.
• Space confinement - Done by use of hardboards which are about 25cm high and form a circular space. A space of 1m² for 25 chicks is required.
• Feeders and waterers - should be enough for the chicks and evenly distributed in the brooder.
• Ventilators - windows should be enough to allow proper air circulation but direct draught should be avoided.

Types of Heaters in the Brooder

• Electric heaters - one ordinary bulb 100 watts can raise 30 chicks.
• One infra­red bulb 240 watts can raise 100 chicks.
• Kerosene burners - Hurricane lamps can raise 100 chicks.
• Charcoal burners - these are specially made jikos with heat deflectors.

Brooder Management

Preparation Before Chicks Arrive

• Start 2-3 days before arrival.
• The brooder house should be cleaned to remove old litter and then disinfected.
• New litters 5-1Ocm high should be put in and covered with absorbent materials/news papers.
• Equipment should be cleaned, disinfected and tested to make sure that they are working.
• The brooder is lit about 6 hours before the chicks arrive.
• Feed and water should be placed into shallow containers.
• Brooder space should be confined with a hard board to prevent chicks straying far from the source of heat.

 

Management After Arrival of the Chicks

• Chicks are placed in the brooder during the day to familiarize with the brooder.
• If chicks arrive stressed and weak they should be given glucose solution in the waterers.
• In case the heat source is charcoal burners they should be covered with wire mesh.
• Feed chicks with chick mash which is later mixed with growers mash as the chicks grow.
• Clean water should be provided and changed regularly.
• Constant attention should be given to the chicks for the first 2 weeks.
• Any vices should be checked and controlled.
• Any dead chicks should be removed as soon as seen.
• Ventilation should be used to control the temperature and humidity in the brooder.
• Constant disinfection is required at the entrance to avoid diseases.
• Brooder space should be increased as the chicks grow.
• Debeaking should be done at 10 days old.
• Vaccination against diseases such as Gumboro after 2 weeks, New Castle at 3-4 weeks and fowl typhoid at 7 weeks.
• Dusting to control external parasites.
• Growers' mash should be introduced gradually at 7 weeks old.
• Chicks are removed from the brooder when they are 8 weeks old.
• On average the chick uses about 1.5kg - 2.2kg of chick mash by the time it is 8 weeks old.

Temperature Control in the Brooder

 - If the brooder temperatures are low the following should be done:

• Brooder space is reduced.
• Heaters are increased.
• Ventilators are closed.

- If the brooder temperatures are too high the following should be done:

• Brooder space is increased.
• Heaters should be reduced.
• Ventilators should be opened.

Management of the Growers

• The growers are birds at the age of 9 weeks to the point of lay that is at 18 weeks.
• Growers should be fed on growers'
• By this time the growers should be occupying the main poultry house.
• Sick birds should be isolated and treated.
• A foot bath for constant disinfection should be placed at the entrance.
• Each bird is fed 115 gms per day of growers' mash.
• Greens and soluble grit should also be provided.
• Clean water should be provided all the time (adilibitum).
• Drenching against internal parasites should be done by adding a dewormer into the water.
• Vermins should be controlled.
• Litter should be kept dry by turning.
• Vaccination should be done as required.
• Layer pullets require dimly lit house.

 

Management of the Layers

• Layers' mash should be introduced at 18 weeks and increased gradually.
• The birds start laying at 18-21 weeks.
• The birds should be vaccinated against New Castle and fowl typhoid.
• Enough floor space roosts, feeders and waterers should be provided.
• Each hen should be given 120gms per day of layers' mash.
• Clean water should be provided adlibitum.
• Eggs should be collected twice a day at noon and in the evening.
• Green leaves should be provided to keep the birds busy thus preventing cannibalism and improve the yellow colour of the yolk.
• Grains should be given in addition to the layers' mash at the rate of 65gms per bird per day.
• Soluble grit or oyster shells should be provided at all times for efficient digestion and strong shelled eggs.
• Layers should be fed according to their body weight and the rate of egg production for example a 70kg bag should feed 100 layers for 4-5 days.
• Enough laying nests should be provided at least 1 per 5 layers.
• The laying boxes should be dimly lit to reduce egg eating.
• Debeaking should be done when necessary.
• Broken eggs and dead birds should be disposed off properly.
• The non-layers and cannibals should be culled.

Management of Broilers

• Broilers are table birds kept for meat production.
• They have high growth rates or high feed conversion ratio.
• The objective is to produce a kilogram of quality poultry meat from less than two kg of broiler feed.
• The broiler chick requires special broiler feed from day old to 4 weeks of age.
• Broiler starters' mash or crumbs should be fed.
• This contains coccidiostat, high level of protein, vitamins and trace elements for early growth.
• From 4 weeks to 8 weeks they are given broiler follow-on mash or pellets.
• This feed contains high level of metabolisable energy to ensure a good cover of subcutaneous fat in the finished broiler.
• From 8 weeks until slaughter finisher pellets should be given to increase the size.
• Adequate clean water should be provided at all times (adlibitum).
• High level of hygiene should be maintained to reduce mortality rate.
• Birds should be dusted with appropriate pesticides to control external parasites.
• Deworming should be done routinely.
• Vaccination against common diseases should be done.
• Dead birds should be disposed off properly.
• Broilers should be kept under deep litter system, the house should be well ventilated and well lit.

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Poultry Rearing Systems

There are three major poultry rearing systems. These are:

• Extensive,
• Semi intensive
• Intensive systems.

 

The Extensive Systems

Free Range

• Birds are set free throughout the day to fend for themselves.
• Birds are confined in night shelters for the night.
• There is no supplementation.

Advantages

• Birds eat insects and green leaves therefore less feed is required.
• Cheap method.
• Cannibalism and egg eating are reduced since the birds are not crowded.
• Manure is evenly spread in the runs.
• Low labour requirement.
• Birds get plenty of exercises thus helping to keep in good health.
• No need to provide grit as birds pick it from the soil.

Disadvantages

• More land is required if a farmer wants to rear many birds.
• Birds can be stolen or eaten by predators.
• Eggs get lost in the vegetation or stolen.
• Eggs get dirty.
• Difficult to determine layers from non-­layers.
• Birds get easily infected with diseases and parasites of the area.
• Breeding programme is not easy to follow.
• Birds can destroy crops where perimeter fencing is not constructed.
• Low productivity per unit area.

Semi-Intensive

Fold System

• Birds are confined in small portable structures called folds.
• A fold measures 3.5m long, 1.5m wide and 1.5m height.
• ¹/₃ of the fold is roofed while the rest is enclosed with wire mesh.
• Birds get plenty of sunlight.
• Birds get fresh grass as the fold is moved to new grounds.

Advantages

• Manure is evenly spread in the field.
• Less feed is used because birds eat grass.
• Reduces build up of parasites and diseases since the fold is moved often.
• Birds are protected from predators.

Disadvantages

• Few birds are kept per fold.
• It is laborious since the folds are moved from one place to the other.
• Individual egg production record is difficult to keep.
• The fold does not last long because of
• high frequency of handling.
• The return per unit area of land is low.

Intensive System

Deep Litter System

• Birds are confined in a house throughout their life.
• The floor of the house is made up of litter which accumulates over time.
• Enough feeders, waterers and laying boxes are provided depending on the number of birds and space available.
• Movable roosts and perches made of timber frames should be provided in the house.
• Stress and vices should be watched closely and controlled.
• Eggs should be collected as frequently as possible to prevent dirt and egg eating.

• The house should be dimly lit.
• The floor space requirement should be 1m² per 2-3 birds.

Advantages

• High stocking rate per unit area of land.
• Low labour requirement.
• Fast accumulation of manure.
• There is control of feeding, egg production and movement of birds.
• Safety of the birds is guaranteed from predators.
• No loss of eggs.
• Useful method when rearing breeding stock.
• Regular cleaning of the house is not necessary since the litter absorbs the droppings.
• Easy collection of eggs.

Disadvantages

• High incidence of cannibalism like egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking.
• Pests and disease causing organisms accumulate in the litter.
• Individual records of the birds are not possible.
• May be difficult to find litter.
• Eggs become dirty if laid on the floor.
• Feeders and waterers may be contaminated by the litter.
• The system encourages broodiness in hens.
• High infestation of diseases if the management is below standard.
• If there is a disease outbreak, it can spread very quickly throughout the house due to the communal housing.
• High cost of building deep litter house.

Battery Cage System

• Birds are confined in cages which are placed in the poultry house.
• The cages are made of wire mesh
• Each cage contains 1-3 birds.
• Water and feed troughs together with eggs trays are fitted along the front side of the cages.
• The floor of the cages should be slanting to allow the eggs to roll out of the cages.
• Droppings from the cages fall from behind for easy cleaning.

 

Advantages

• Records are easily kept therefore culling is easy.
• Birds do not become broody.
• More eggs are collected due to restricted movement of the hens and complete control of egg eating.
• Tender meat is obtained from the culls because the muscles have not been toughened much.
• Handling is easier than in the other systems and individual attention to hens is given.
• Stocking rate is very high.
• Vices are greatly reduced.
• Eggs are clean because hens do not step on them.
• The system can easily be mechanised.
• Birds do not contaminate the food and water.
• Sick birds can be detected easily and isolated for treatment.
• Wire floors prevent re-infestation of parasitic worms and coccidiosis.
• No bullying during feeding.
• Low labour requirement.

Disadvantages

• Initial costs for cages, equipment and house are excessively high.
• Requires high level of management.
• Higher maintenance costs where automation is used.
• Birds may get fatigue due to lack of exercises thus lowering productivity.
• In case of disease outbreak, spreading is very fast.
• Birds develop bruises on combs, breasts and toes as they stick their necks out-to feed and walk in the cages.
• Not useful when rearing breeding stock and the rearing of broilers.
• Cannot be used for brooding young chicks.

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Stress and Vices in Chicken

• Stress is a condition imposed on the birds making them disturbed and uncomfortable.
• Stress reduces production and brings about poor performance.
• Vices are habits developed by animals.
• These affect production and health of the birds.
• Usually they are bad habits.

Cause of Stress in Poultry

• Sudden changes in routine management.
• Presence of strangers in the poultry house.
• Presence of animals and vermins.
• Too much noise.
• Constant and poor handling.
• Sudden weather changes.
• Disturbance of the pecking order.
• Overcrowding
• Poor hygiene.
• Disease and pest attack.
• Lack of food and water.

Control of Stress

• Poultry house should be kept quiet and constructed away from noise.
• Poultry house should be insulated to maintain constant temperatures.
• Parasites and diseases should be controlled.
• Change in routine management should be gradual.
• Enough feed and water should be provided.

Vices

• Feather pecking.
• Cannibalism (toe and vent pecking).
• Egg eating.

Pecking and Cannibalism

• Situation where birds peck at each other resulting in death or injury.

Effects:

• Feather and body growth rate IS reduce
• Loss of birds due to death may result from cannibalism.
• Culling rate is increased (economic loss).
• The appearance of the carcass is spoiled thereby reducing its market value.

Causes of Cannibalism

• Overcrowding in the house.
• High temperatures in the poultry house making the birds uncomfortable.
• Too bright light.
• External parasite infestation.
• Inadequate and incorrect feeding.
• Idleness of the birds.
• Greediness of the birds.
• Disturbances of the pecking order.
• Prolapses of the rectum which occurs once in a while.
• Bright light in the lying boxes.

Preventive Measures

• Ample spacing should be provided on the floor, feeders, waterers and laying boxes.
• Overheating should be avoided during brooding.
• The house should be dimly lit for the layers.
• Laying nests should be darkened and above the groun
• Dusting should be done to control external parasites.
• Provide enough balanced ration.
• Birds should be kept busy.
• New/strange birds should not be allowed in the house.

Egg Eating

A vice influenced by the following:

• Presence of broken or soft shelled eggs.
• Idleness of the birds.
• Inadequate laying nests.
• Mineral deficiencies.
• Bright light in the laying nests.
• Greediness of the birds.

Preventive Measures

• Eggs should be collected regularly.
• Laying boxes raised above the ground.
• Laying boxes should be darkened.
• Birds should be given balanced ration.
• Debeaking should be done as need be.
• Birds should be kept busy with greens.
• Birds should be kept according to age groups.
• Injured birds should be isolated and treated.

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Marketing of Poultry Products

• Poultry products include eggs and meat.

Marketing of Eggs

• Eggs are delicate and perishable foods and have the highest value when fresh.

The Factors Considered when Sorting out and Grading Eggs for the Market Include:

• Size/weight of the egg - large eggs fetch high prices than small ones. The average weight should be about 57gms.
• Shape of the egg - The normal egg shape is oval, with a broad end and a narrow end.
• Cleanliness - Consumers prefer clean eggs.
• Colour of the shell - Brown eggs are popular with the consumers.
• Candling qualities - candling is done to determine freshness of the eggs and presence of any other egg abnormalities.
• Shell texture - should be smooth and without cracks.

Poultry Meat

• Broilers are slaughtered at the age of 1-2.5months old with a life weight of 1.5-2kgs.
• The birds are killed and dressed in a clean way before being wrapped in clean bags ready for sale.
• The meat is sold in hotels and restaurants.
• Whole birds can be sold live in local markets.

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