• Soil Conservation
  • Soil recovery
    • Soil recovery/restoration
  • Importance of soil recovery
  • Soil Improvement
  • Methods of soil conservation
  • Importance of conserving soil
• Water Conservation
  • Importance of water conservation
• Living better with wild animals
  • Importance of wild animals
• Growing Climbing fruit Plants
• • How to plant
    • Passion fruit seeds
  • Ways of training a plant
  • Managing Climbing fruit plants
  • Harvesting
  • Harvesting Process

Soil Conservation

Soil recovery

• Soil is important in a number of ways. They Include:
  
  1. It’s our life support system
  2. It provides anchorage for plant roots
  3. It holds water and nutrients
  4. It’s a home for various micro-organisms
  5. We build on soil.
     
     
• Therefore soil plays a vital role in our environment. As without soil human life would be very difficult.
• It’s therefore a resource that should be guarded with a lot of caution. This is why to keep this resource in good we should limit chances of various factors doing away with it.
• Soil erosion is the removal of the top soil from one place to another by means of water, wind, or animal activities.
• Eroded soils by water are deposited to other places by siltation.
• Silt is the deposited soil and is rich in humor such soil very fertile. It comprises of organic matter and can be recovered. Silty soil is slippery when wet, not grainy or rocky

Soil recovery/restoration

• This is the process of collecting eroded soil from its deposition back to the farm for farming.

Importance of soil recovery

• Soil conservation is key to environmental sustainability
• It helps protect natural resources and watersheds,
• restores habitats for plants and wildlife,
• Improves water quality, and makes soil healthier.
• Soil conservation also creates economic opportunity.
• We should therefore look for eroded places and recover the soil and conserve our environment for the future.
• Runoff water is the water that runs on the ground at high speed and it removes the soil from its path leaving behind a gully.
• Soil eroded by runoff are deposited at the river banks, on the sides of the roads or in places where there are cover crops.
• Recovering soil is important to crops because it is very fertile, comprising of decomposed organic matter.
• Runoff water has the energy to detach soil particles by scour and to transport entrained soil materials either in suspension or by pushing or rolling larger particles.
  
  (Runoff)
  
  ( soil deposition site)

Soil Improvement

• Soil improvement is the addition of soil nutrients to poor and non-productive soils. This can be done by addict organic manure.

Methods of soil conservation

• These include fallowing,
  1. using compost, manure, crop residues, 
  2. Using fertilizer trees (e.g Calliandra and Pygeum africana),
  3. intercropping legumes with cereals and including the principles of conservation agriculture (crop rotation, ensuring permanent cover for the soil and no disturbing of the top soil layer).
• Organic manure can be prepared by the use of organic materials such as plants materials, animal waste, food remains or kitchen wastes.
• This can be done by the method of hip compost or pit compost.
• With hip compost, the organic materials are hipped on the ground and left to decompose for some time and then transported to the farm where planting takes place.
• In the absence of compost pit or residue pit, we may use drum or wood pallet as compost bin.”
• On the other hand, pit manure is prepared by digging underground and dumping all organic waste materials inside. These materials are left for sometimes to decompose then are used in the farm to improve soil.

(compost pit building)

(wooden compost)

(drum compost)

(compost heap)

(compost garden)

• Once the waste materials have decomposed fully we can plant a suitable crop in the waste pit.
• Dumping green and dry plant remains, food remains and kitchen wastes in a pit situated on a poor soil site is a god farming practice.
• This is because once the organic waste materials decay, they release nutrients that are required for the growth of pants.
• Therefore if an area has poor soil, it can be improved using organic manure, a crop can be grown successfully.

Importance of conserving soil

• The soil is literally the foundation of plant life. A tree will not be a tree without soil. While there are some plants that can live in water or air, most plants need to be rooted to the ground. It is the soil that provides nutrition to this plant life. It is through this vegetation that nourishes the humankind and the animal kingdom. Plants are important resource of food and fuel and of wood and other by-products that make our other life functions possible.
• The soil additionally supports the animal kingdom. Our agriculture also relies on soil, for its location and for other functions to be derived from its existence. It will be almost impossible to support the animal and human life without land.
• The soil is necessary for water supply. This is the magic of nature. The land is also necessary to ensure the quality of water we derive from our earth. Soil and water co-exist. So do we and soil co-exist? Taking good care of our soil equates to taking care of our water supply.

Water Conservation

• Water conservation is the process of retain water in the soil for planting. Water conservation can be done through mulching, shading, and cores cropping.
  1. Mulching
     • Is the process of soil water conservation by spreading dry leaves or planting on the ground surface where the crops are planted.
     • The dry leaves are called mulch where they are used to conserve soil water/moisture.
     • Mulching prevents direct sunshine to the soil surface which lowers the rate or evaporation.
       
       
       
       
  2. Shading
     • This is done by constructing a shade structure and covering its top with dry leaves.
     • This is usually constructed on top of seedbeds to protect the seedling from the scotching sun and also to protect the soil from losing water through evaporation.
       
       
       
       
  3. Cover Cropping
     • Cover cropping is the process of soil water conservation through planting short crops that spread wide on the ground.
     • Plants used for cover cropping are bean plants, peas and green grams.
     • Water just like soil, is an important resource in our environment for farming practices. We can use mulching, cover cropping and shading to conserve soil moisture.
     • These farming practices reduce loss of water from the soil.
     • Conserving water ensures that water in our farms is well used throughout the growing season
     • It is important to conserve water because it is an important resource for farming in our homes. Without water, the plants will not grow to produce food for us.
       
       
       
       

Importance of water conservation

• Without fresh water you will die in just a few days.
• Conserving water is important because it keeps water pure and clean while protecting the environment
• Water conservation reduces energy use and can even save your household money.

Living better with wild animals

• Wild animals are very useful to use. Some are dangerous like the leopard and the lion.

Importance of wild animals

1. Wildlife provides nutrients to humans
2. People depend on wildlife for their livelihoods
3. Wildlife has cultural significance
4. Wildlife is important for the economy
5. Protecting wildlife creates more jobs

• Wild animals generate revenue through local and international tourism. Some animals destroy our crops and some kill our domestic animals.
• We can scare and keep away wild animals without killing them.
• We can keep away animals by the use sounds, using smells and use of smelly and bitter tasting plants.
  1. Use of Sounds
     • Some animals are often scared by sounds made by people talking or shouting. Animals like monkeys and squirrels can be scared away by the use of sounds made by radio. A radio is switched on and put in a plantation to scare wild animals’ away.
  2. Using Smells
     • Some wild animals are repellant to bad smells. Smells can be produced by burning items such as rugs, plastics or tires. This smell is used to keep away animals such as rodents.
  3. Use of Smelly and bitter tasting plants
     • Some animals avoid smelly and bitter tasting plants. This method keeps away root eaters (rodents) such as the mole from destroying farm plants, and digging holes in the farm.
  4. Care and Safety from Wild Animals
     • Some wild animals can be dangerous. They can attack us or even kill us, they include the wild dog, wild cat and monkeys. Such animals can also transmit dangerous diseases such as rabies. We should always keep a safe distances from wild animals. We should not touch or provoke wild animals.

Growing Climbing fruit Plants

• Fruits are source of food rich in vitamins.
• They are important for our bodies for growth vitamins are nutrients needed by the body to repair warm out tissues.
• Climbing fruits plants have a stem called a vain. Vains are weak and therefore are needed to be supported using wood or wires.
• Such fruits plants can also be made to climb along the fence. They include the passion fruits, grapes, blackberries, kiwi fruits, raspberry fruits and gooseberry fruits.
  
  

How to Plant

• Climbing fruit plants can be planted from seeds or from stem cutting. Fruits seeds can be found from the market or can be prepared at home for planting.
• To prepare fruits seeds, get a fruit from a tree or from the market, extract seeds from it and wash.
• Dry the seeds on the sunlight and select the best seeds for planting. Prepare a seedbed and plant your seeds.
• Always water your seeds regularly until the seeds germinate. After germinating and the seedlings are strong, you can transfer them to their place of planting.
• This process of transferring seedlings from the seedbed to their place of planting is called transplanting.

Passion fruit seeds

• To prepare stem cutting select a sweet able fruit plant to get the stems form. Using a knife, cut the stem into small pieces of about one feet.
• Insert the cuttings into a planting site such as a container or a socket. Take care of the planted cutting by watering them, shading and removing weeds. When the cuttings start to develop leaves and roots, you can transplant them to their new places.
  stem cuttings

(stem cutting)

• Young climbing fruits plants should be taken care of. We should make a shade of them to prevent them from direct sunlight.
• We should also construct a support structure using strong poles and wires for the fruit plant to support itself on.
• We also need to guide the plant along wires the process of guiding a climbing fruit plant along a wire is called Training.

Ways of training a plant

• A grower trains plants to:
  • Improve flower or plant appearance and management,
  • improve flower and fruit size and quality and
  • to protect plants from damage.
• Training plants is done by:
  • supporting,
  • thinning,
  • stopping,
  • disbudding and
  • pruning.
• Water the young fruit plant regularly and apply manure at its roots. Artificial fertilizer can also be used at minimal quantities to ensure safe food, protect the plant from any weeds by weeding them regularly by uprooting weeds from the stem.

 Managing Climbing fruit plants

• This is taking care of the plant to ensure that it grows until the harvesting stage. The process of managing fruits plant include, watering, weeding, manure application, training and harvesting.
• This can be well achieved by developing a project schedule.
• The planted climbing fruit plant should be watered regularly on the established site.
• Weeding should be done to reduce competition from weeds for nutrients, water and light.
• It is important to make a shade over the young plants. The shade protects them from direct heat of the sun. It is important to make a fence around them.
• A fence protects them from being damaged by animals.
• Well-rotted manure should be applied from time to time to ensure that the fruit plants grow healthy.
• Climbing fruit plants also need to be supported so that they grow well and receive adequate light.

Harvesting

• Fruits can be harvested at their right time of harvest. Once the fruits are mature, they should be harvested. The right time for fruit harvesting can be determined by observing the colour of the fruit.
• Some fruits like the yellow passion fruit turn their colour to yellow and become a bit softer, smoother and sweet smelling. Some fruits such as the passion fruits fall of from the tree when they are ready for harvesting.

Harvesting Process

• Climbing fruit plant can easily be damaged during the harvesting process. We should take care not to pull the fruits from climbing fruit plant.
• Pulling the fruits can damage both the fruit and the plant. Tender fruits such as berries should be placed in small container immediately after harvesting to prevent damage.

• Soil Erosion
  • Agents of Soil Erosion
  • Factors that Infuence Soil Erosion
  • Types of Soil

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the carrying away of the top soil from one place to another.

Agents of Soil Erosion

They are things that carry soil from one place to another. They include;

• Water
• wind

Factors that Influence Soil Erosion

1. Slope of land
2. Type of soil
3. Vegetation cover
4. Amount of rainfall
5. Human activities

Types of Soil Erosion

1. Splash erosion
2. Sheet erosion
3. Rill erosion
4. Gulley erosion

Splash Erosion

It occurs when raindrops fall on bare loose soil.
It can be controlled by;

• Planting cover crops
• mulching

Sheet Erosion

It occurs when water or wind carries away thin uniform layers of the topsoil.
It is not easily noticed
It occurs on gentle slopes.
Best controlled by;

• Planting cover crops
• Planting trees
• Landslides are caused by sheet erosion

Rill Erosion

It occurs when water flows down a slope and make small shallow channels. The channels are known as rills. it is common on gentle sloping areas.
It can be controlled by;

• Terracing
• Contour farming
• Strip cropping

Gulley Erosion

It occurs when water make deep channels , they are known as gulleys.
Gulley erosion leads to the formation of V-shaped or U-shaped channels.
It is common on bare hill slopes.
It can be controlled by;

• Gabions
• Porous dams
• Check dams

• Soil Fertility.
• Types of Fertilizers
  • Straight Fertilizer
  • Compound Fertilizer
• Advantages of using Manures and fertilizers.

Soil Fertility.

This is the ability of the soil to produce high yields for a long time.

Fertilizer: These are organic or inorganic substances that are added to soil that have lost their fertility.

They are grouped into natural fertilizers and artificial fertilizers.

Green Manure:They are made from green plants,these plants should be:

• Leafy.
• Able to grow fast.
• Able to decay quickly
• Contain a high amount of nitrogen.

Farmyard manure: They are made from animals wastes such as urine,dung, poultry droppings and animal bedding.
Compost manure: This is a mixture of decayed plants,animal waste,leaves and vegetable peelings

How to encourage fast decomposition of compost heap:

• Keeping the heap moist.
• Adding a layer of decayed materials rich in bacteria.
• Adding a layer of topsoil to introduce decomposers.
• Covering the heap duriing the wet season.
• Turning the heap occasionally,at leastafter 3-4weeks to allow circulation of air.
  NB:Farmyard manure introduces bacteria.

Mulches: These are plant materials such as plant leaves and dry grass which are used as soil cover.

Types of Fertilizers (Inorganic manure)

They are classified into two:

• Straight fertilizer
• Compound fertilizer.

Straight Fertilizers:

They contain only one macronutrient.

Examples of nitrogenous fertilizer.

• Calcium Ammonium Nitrate.
• Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate.
• Urea

Examples of Phosphatic fertilizers.

• Single super phosphate.
• Double super phosphate

Examples of potassic fertilizers.

• Muriate of potash.
• Sulphate of potash.

Compound Fertilizers:

They provide two or more of the macronutrients to a plant.

Examples of compound fertilizers.

• Diammonium Phosphate(DAP)
• Nitrogen, Phosphorus,Potassium(NPK)

Advantages of using Manures and fertilizers.

• Results in high growth rate of crops.
• Leads to high crop yields which are of high quality.
• Leads to growth of crops that are deep green in colour.
• Encourage the vegetative growth.
• Leads to quick ripening of fruits.
• Provides the necessary nutrients for growth and development of crops.
• Increase the size of seeds,grain and fruits.
• Strengths the plantstems that support the plant.
• Improves soil fertility.

Disadvantages of Using Manures and Fertilizers.

• Some are expensive to prepare eg Green manure.
• Some pollutes the environment if not use by plants immediately eg Inorganic manure.
• Some fertilizers are corrosive.
• Some manures and fertilizers scorch the plant if applied in great quantities.

Activity 2: State other advantages and disadvantages of using manures.and fertilizers

• Physical Environment
  
  • Types of Environment
• Map Reading And Intepretation
  • Elements of a Map
    • Use of Elements of a Map
  • Map Reading
  • Features That Can Be Interpreted From a Map
    • Human Activities Commonly Found in a Map
    • Features on a Map That Represents Administration
    • Features That Show Drainage Systems on a Map
  • Human Settlement on the Map
    • Types of Settlement
  • How to Identify Functions of a Town on a Map
• Physical Features
  • Effects of Physical Features of Human Activities
  • Negative Effects of Physical Features
• Climate
  • Traditional Methods of Observing Weather
  • Observation, Measurement and Recording of Weather Elements
    • Wind
    • Air Pressure
    • Rainfall
    • Temperature
  • Factors Influencing Climate Change
  • Impact of Climate Change on Human Activities
• Soil
  • Major soil types in Kenya
  • Characters of types of soil
    • Volcanic Soil
    • Clay(Black Cotton) Soil
    • Sandy Soil
    • Loamy Soil
    • Alluvial(Young) Soil
  • Major causes of soil erosion
  • Effects of Soil Erosion on Human Activities
  • Soil Conservation Measures

Physical Environment

What is Environment?

The things around us or in our surrounding make up the environment.
Examples

1. Trees
2. Animals
3. Water etc.
4. Grass
5. Rivers
6. Buildings
7. Birds

Types of Environment

1. Natural environment
   These were things that were made by God. E.g Mountains ,Lakes, Rivers, Vegetation etc.
2. Human environment
   These are things made through man`s efforts e.g Dams, buildings, roads, etc.
3. Physical environment
   The non – living part of the environment which consists of Soils, air, rocks, water, hills, mountains, rivers and lakes form the physical environment.

Map Reading And Interpretation.

A map is a drawing on a flat surface that represents a whole part of the earth.

Elements of a Map

Elements of a map helps a reader to understand the information on a given
map.
The main element of a map are:

1. Title
2. Key
3. Compress
4. Frame
5. Scales

Uses of Elements of a Map

Map Reading

This is the ability to read, understand, and interpret information given on a
map.
Symbols of a map contained in the key should be fully understood and
interpreted correctly.

Features That Can be Interpreted From a Map

1. Relief and drainage patterns in the area.
2. Human and economic activities in the area.
3. Types of climate experienced in the area.
4. Transport facilities in the area.
5. Vegetation found in the area.
6. Human settlement pattern in the area.
7. Administrative boundaries in the area.
8. Social activities (services) found in the area.

Human Activities Commonly Found in a Map

Economic activities are the objectives that people carry out in order to get
income (money).
Examples

Social Activities on a Map

1. Religious activities : Churches, mosques, temples, shrines.
2. Medical services : Clinics, dispensaries, health centers, district hospital, provincial hospitals and National hospitals.
3. Education: Schools, colleges, polytechnics, universities.
4. Recreation : Cinema halls, Social halls, play grounds, theatres.

Features on a Map That Represents Administration

1. Government offices e.g. Assistant chief`s offices or chief`s camp.
2. Police post.
3. Administrative boundaries.

Features That Show Drainage Systems on a Map

Human Settlement on the Map

Settlement is the pattern of population distribution in an area shown by dots and black shades.

Types of Settlement

How to Identify the Functions of a Town on a Map

Physical Features

These are things we see on the surface of the earth. They include natural physical features and man-made(human)

Natural features: Mountains, plateaus, hills, plains, valleys, rivers, lakes, etc.

Man-made: dams, lakes etc.

The Effects of Physical Features on Human Activities

Negative Effects of Physical Features

1. Flooding.
2. Water borne diseases e.g. Malaria and Bilharzia.

Climate

Traditional Methods of Observing Weather

1. Observing the sky
   • Thick grey clouds: rain.
   • Certain stars arranged in a particular manner: dry spell.
2. Phases of the moon
   • New moon: rain.
   • Full moon: It would rarely rain.
3. Appearance of the rainbow
   • Some communities believed that it would not rain if the rainbow appears in the sky when it was about to ran
4. Condition of the environment
   • Very hot and humid: Coming of the rain.
5. Blowing of wind
   • Strong winds blowing after a dry weather: Showed the coming of the rains
   • Wind blowing during the rainy season: Meant chasing away of the rain to give way to a dry spell.
6. Behavior of birds:
   • Happy and playful birds in the sky would signify the coming of rains.
7. Trail of ants: Signified the coming of rains.
8. Croaking of frogs: Signified the coming of the rain.
9. Appearance of toads: Signified the coming of the rains.
10. Behavior of cattle: Coming of the rains(showing happiness by jumping up and down)
11. Shedding of leaves after a rainy season: This Signified a dry spell.

Observation, Measurement and Recording of Weather Elements

What is meteorology?

It is the science of observing and measuring weather elements.

1. Wind

   
   
   
   
   

2. Air Pressure

   
   
   
   

3. Rainfall

   
   
   The raingauge is dug into the ground as shown above.
   
   

4. Temperature

   
   
   1. Minimum and maximum thermometer
      
      
      Used to measure temperature for the day.
      It is U-shaped.
      Minimum records coldest temperature.
      Maximum records warmest temperatures.
      
      
   2. Single-tube thermometer
      
      
      Used to measure coldness and / or hotness of the air.
      It is marked in o Celsius.
      It may contain alcohol or mercury.

Factors Influencing Climate Change

Climate change is the occurrence of unexpected change of climatic condition in a particular region. The main factors influencing climate change include:-

1. Deforestation
   Cutting down of trees leads to reduced amount of rainfall.
   It creates desert – like conditions in the areas previously occupied by forests.
   It contributes to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
   
   
2. Afforestration and re-afforestration
   Planting of more trees will increase the amount of rainfall.
   Both afforestration and re-afforestration reduce soil erosion and evaporation, hence protecting water catchment areas.
   
   
3. Industrialization
   Heat and smoke from industries cause pollution and increase temperature in the atmosphere.
   
   
4. Excess use of chemicals
   Such as fertilizers causes atmospheric change due to the gasses they produce.
   The growing of rice under irrigation contributes to warming of the atmosphere. The rice in water release a gas known as methane, which
   contributes to global warming. The same applies to the use of fertilizers.
   Global warming is also caused by the use of petroleum to run vehicles .Machines give off a gas known as carbon monoxide, which makes
   the air warmer.
   
   
5. Clearing of vegetation for agriculture
   This exposes the soil to agents of soil erosion.
   
   
6. Building of dams
   Human-made lakes which form behind the dam modify the climate.
   
   
7. Ocean currents
   These leads to temperature change along the coastal areas.

Impact of Climate Change on Human Activities

Positive effects

1. Increase in food production due to increased amount of rainfall
2. Increased generation of hidro-electric power due to high rainfall.
3. Promotion of fishing due to adequate water in rivers.

Negative effects

1. Low agricultural production due to lack of rains.
2. Displacement of people due to floods.
3. Global warming as a result of general increase in temperature worldwide.
4. Increase of water-borne diseases such as malaria and bilharzias due to increased rains.
5. Damage of transport systems e.g. roads.
6. Migration of people migration of people to favourable climate.
7. Death of human beings.

Soil

Soil is formed through a process called weathering. Soil contains:

1. Organic matter
2. Rock particles
3. Humus
4. Air
5. Minerals
6. Water
7. Living organisms

Major Soil Types in Kenya

1. Volcanic soils.
2. Clay (black cotton) soil.
3. Sandy soil.
4. Loamy soil.
5. Alluvial (young) soil.

Characteristics of Types of Soil

Volcanic Soil

1. Red in colour.
2. Deep fertile and well-drained.
3. Occur in layers.
4. Medium – sized soil particles.
5. Mainly found in the highlands.

Clay( Black Cotton) Soil

1. Small – sized particles.
2. Dark in colour
3. Deep and fertile
4. Poorly drained.
5. Muddy and sticky during the rainy season.
6. Big cracks during dry seasons.

Sandy Soil

1. Large soil particles.
2. Shallow and dry.
3. Contains a lot of air.
4. Water seeps through them fast.
5. Low water retention capacity.
6. Loose nutrients mainly through leaching.

Loamy Soil

1. It has a mixture of small, medium and large soil particles.
2. It retains a reasonable amount of water fertile, deep and well drained.
3. Appears in different colours e.g. light grey, dark brown and dark grey.

Alluvial (Young) Soil

1. They are found in river valleys and flood plains.
2. They are made of slits.
3. Soil particles are of medium size.
4. Have a smooth texture.
5. They are deep and fertile.

Major Causes of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the natural displacement of soil from the original place of formation to another by agents of erosion like wind, water and human beings.

The major causes of soil erosion are as follows:

1. Deforestation- Cutting down of trees which exposes the soil to agents of soil erosion.
2. Overstocking- Keeping large herds of livestock beyond the capacity of land leading to overgrazing
3. Overgrazing-Livestock grazing on all pasture (vegetation) leaving the ground bare.
4. Monocropping-Growing of one type of crop on the same peace of land year after year exhausts soil fertility.
5. Over-cropping-Growing of many different types of crops which compete for nutrients. The soil finally becomes loose and infertile
6. Up-the-slope (hill) cultivation-This promotes gulley erosion.
7. Mining and quarrying-Results to displacement of soil.

Effects of Soil Erosion on Human Activities

1. Destocking (reducing the number of livestock on the farm)
2. Application of fertilizers to the soil in order to increase its fertility.
3. Introduction of afforestration and re-afforestrationprogrammes
4. Promotion of agriculture in the flood plain where fertile soil (alluvial) is deposited.
5. Adoption of good farming methods to reduce soil erosion.
6. Additional expense to the government in building dams, dykes and canals.

Soil Conservation Measures

1. Afforestration :
   Planting of trees.
2. Re- afforestration:
   Planting of trees where they had been cut down.
3. Agro-forestry:
   Planting of trees together with crops.
4. Crop rotation:-
   Growing of different crops on the same peace of land in alternate planting seasons.
5. Mulching: The covering of the bare ground with grass to prevent moisture loss.
6. Cover cropping:
   Planting of perennial crops like coffee and bananas together with food crops likepotatoes, beans and maize.
7. Construction of gabions:
   Pilling up of stones in iron cages to prevent further movement of soil downhill.
8. Terracing:
   Making of horizontal steps on sides of hilly areas.
9. Fallowing:
   Leaving the land idle for some time in order to retain its fertility.
10. Creation of cut-off- drainage:
    This is the digging of trenches to divert water from hill tops
11. Controlled grazing:
    This is done by subdividing land into paddocks.
12. Use of fertilizers and manure:
    This helps the soil to regain its fertility.
13. Contour ploughing:
    This is ploughing of farm across the land guarded by the contours.