Open Source Content Management

• Business Activities
  • Needs and Wants
  • Scarcity, Choice, Scale of preference and opportunity cost
  • Types Of Business Activities
  • Business Objectives
• Goods and Services
  • Types of Goods and Services
  • Classification of Goods and Services
• Economic Resources
  • Characteristics Of Economic Resources
  • Types of Economic Resources in Kenya
  • Sustainable Ways Of Using Economic Resources
  • Importance Of Economic Resources
• Business Communication
  • Importance of Business Communication
  • Business Communication Methods
• Production of Goods and Services
  • Importance of Production
  • Characteristics of Factors of Production
• Marketing of Goods and Services
  • Types of Markets
  • Marketing
  • Consumers
  • ICT platforms for marketing Goods and services

Business Activities

Needs And Wants

Scarcity, Choice, Scale of preference and opportunity cost

The basic concept or elements of economics are:

• wants,
• scarcity,
• scale of preference,
• choice and
• opportunity cost.

WANTS

Wants simply means the desire or wish to own goods or services that give satisfaction. Goods include things such as cars, radios, food, houses, books, etc., (that is tangible commodities), while services includes hair dressing, the services of an actor, etc(that is intangible commodities). Want s are also called ENDS.

As these basic needs are satisfied, other needs will arise. That is why we say that human wants are insatiable. This is because human wants are unlimited while resources used in satisfying them are limited.

SCARCITY

Scarcity refers to the limited available resources used in satisfying the unlimited human wants.

These resources are scarce relative to their demand. It is as a result of scarcity of resources that needs the study of economics very essential in order to find alternative uses of these scarce resources. The available resources cannot satisfy all human wants. Since human wants are unlimited or insatiable relative to the available resources, we have to choose the most pressing ones and leave others that are less important because resources are scare.

As a student you will need to buy school materials, e.g exercise books worth #100.00 but you have only #50.00. it can be seen that the money you have (#50.00), which is your resources, will not be sufficient to buy all you need. The available resources within the environment can never at any time be in abundance to satisfy all human wants.

If resources were to be unlimited or abundant, no economics problem would arises and there would be no need for a study of economics. Scarcity is the central or basic economic problems

SCALE OF PREFERENCE

Scale of preference refers to a list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of their relative importance.

A scale of preference refers to a list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of priority or importance. This aids decision-making. The most pressing needs are ranked first followed by the less pressing ones. In other words, it is a list showing the order in which we want to satisfy our wants arrange in order of priority.

The drawing of scale of preference will make it easier for choice to be made. In order to achieve maximum satisfaction with limited resources at their disposal, an individual, firm and unsatisfied wants in order of priority.

Each individual is assumed to have a scale of preference. This is because economics theory assumes that people always behave rationally and would satisfy their most pressing want first.

For example, a student might rank his wants in following order according to their level of importance:

1. Pair of school uniform
2. Exercise books
3. Wrist watch
4. Dictionary
5. Scientific calculator
6. An arm chair

If he is to choose between items 1 and 4, he chooses the first. Scale of preference of individuals, firms and the government differ from time to time.

IMPORTANCE OF SCALE OF PREFERENCE

• Ranking of needs
• Financial prudence
• Identification of highest priority
• Rational choice
• Efficient utilization of limited resources
• Optimum allocation of resources
• Maximization of satisfaction

The importance of scale of preference can be paraphrased this way also:

• It helps individuals to rank their needs in order of importance.
• It helps us to manage our resources properly.
• It helps both individuals and government to identify the most important needs.
• It enhances optimum allocation of resources.
• It helps individuals, firms and government in the efficient utilization of resources.
• It helps economic agents to maximize their satisfaction.
• It helps individuals to make rational decision.

CHOICE

Choice can be defined as a system of selecting or choosing one out of a number of alternatives. Human wants are many and we cannot satisfy all of them because of our limited resources.

We therefore, decide which of the wants we can satisfy first. Choice arises as a result of numerous human wants and the scarcity of the resources used in satisfying these wants.

OPPORTUNITY COST

Opportunity cost is also known as a real cost or time cost.

The concept of opportunity cost is used in economics to express cost in terms of foregone or sacrificed alternatives. Opportunity cost means the alternative foregone or sacrifice made in order to satisfy another want. It is the satisfaction of one’s want at the expense of another want.

Types Of Business Activities

People carry out different business activities in order to earn income.

Business activities are activities which involve the provision of goods or services with an aim of earning a profit.

Activities done without the intention of making profit are referred to as

non-business activities. Business activities may be grouped into the following seven categories:

1. Extraction
   This involves obtaining goods from their natural setting e.g. mining, farming, lumbering, fishing, quarrying e.t.c
2. Processing
   This involves the conversion of raw materials into more useful products without combining it with other goods. Examples here
   include milling/grinding flour, refining oil, tanning of skins and hides, conversion of iron into steel e.t.c
3. Manufacturing
   This involves combining different raw materials to come up with one final product. Such activities include bread baking, making a table e.t.c
4. Construction
   This involves building of structures such as bridges, ships, aeroplanes, houses, roads, railways e.t.c
5. Distribution of goods
   This refers to the activities involved in moving goods from where they are produced to where they are needed. People
   who carry out distribution are called distributors. Examples of distributors are wholesalers and retailers.
6. Trade-Activities in this category involve the buying and selling of goods with a view of making a profit. People involved in trade are called traders.
7. Provisions of Services-Activities in this category involve human acts which could be mental or physical. These include activities such as haircutting, hair styling, car-washing, nursing, teaching, driving, and entertaining e.t.c.

Purpose of Business activity

• Provides goods and services from limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants
• Scarcity is the result of the economic problem – limited resources and unlimited wants
• Choice is necessary for scarce resources. This leads to opportunity costs
• Specialization is required to make the most out of sources

Business activity

• Combines factors of production to create goods and services
• Goods and services satisfy peoples’ wants
• Employs people and pays them wages so they can consume other products

Business Objectives

All businesses have objectives or aims to achieve. Their objectives may vary depending on the type of business and the situation the business is in. The most common objectives are:

• Profit: Profit is what keeps a company going and is the main objective of most businesses. Normally a business will try to obtain a satisfactory level of profits so they do not have to work long hours to pay too much tax.
• Increase added value: Value added is the difference between the price and material costs of a product. E.g.: If the price when selling a pen is Ksh. 3 and it costs Ksh.1 in material, the value added would be Ksh.2. However, this does not take in account overheads and taxes. Added value could be increased by working on products so that they become more expensive finished products. One easy example of this is a mobile phone with a camera would sell for much more than one without it. Of course, you will need to pay for the extra camera but as long as prices rise more than costs, you get more profit.
• Growth: Growth can only be achieved when customers are satisfied with a business. When businesses grow they create more jobs and make them more secure when a business is larger. The status and salary of managers are increased. Growth also means that a business is able to spread risks by moving to other markets, or it is gaining a larger market share. Bigger businesses also gain cost advantages, called economies of scale.
• Survival: If a business do not survive, its owners lose everything. Therefore, businesses need to focus on his objective the most when they are: starting up, competing with other businesses, or in an economic recession.
• Service to the community: This is the primary goal for most government owned businesses. They plan to produce essential products to everybody who need them.
  These business objectives or aims can conflict because different people in a business want different things at different times.

Goods And Services

Types Of Goods And Services

We desire to have all the things to satisfy our present and future wants. Thus, our desire is for all those things that satisfy our wants.

All these things are either material goods or services. If something is not wanted by anybody it will not be called a good or service.

Therefore, we can divide the things that we wants into two categories:

1. Goods and
2. Services.

Goods are material things wanted by human beings. They can be seen or touched. Services are non-material things. These cannot be seen or touched only their effects are felt. When we are hungry, we take food. When we fall sick, we take medicines. When we study, we use book, notebook, pen, paper etc. All these are examples of goods which satisfy some of our wants. All the things which satisfy human wants are good.

However, wants for haircut, washing of cloths, mending of shoes, stitching of cloths, studying in a school or a college etc. are not satisfied by goods. These are satisfied by the services performed by a barber, washer man, cobbler, tailor and teacher etc. So some of our wants are satisfied by goods and some by services. Hence, all the human wants can be satisfied by goods and services.

Classification of Goods and Services:

Goods and services are of many types. However, these can be classified into some broad groups.
These are discussed below:

1. Free Goods and Economic goods:
   The goods which have unlimited supply and are provided as free gift of nature. The goods which are not man-made and do not have to pay anything to get them. These goods are known as ‘Free Goods’. For example, air, sea, water, sunlight, sand in the desert etc. On the other hand, goods like vegetables, grains, minerals, fruits, fishes etc. which are neither man-made nor unlimited supply of nature are known as ‘Economic Goods’ All these goods are sold and purchased in the market only.
2. Free Services and Economic Services:
   Services which cannot be bought in the market and which are only rendered out of love, affection etc. are known as ‘Free Services’. For example, all services given by the parents to their children are free services. However, all the services that can be bought in the market are ‘Economic Services’. Services rendered by doctors, teachers, lawyers, barbers, cobblers etc. are the example of economic services.
3. Consumer Goods and Capital Goods:
   The goods which are directly used by the consumer for the purposes of consumption are known as ‘Consumer Goods’ The example of consumer goods are bread, biscuit, butter, jam, rice, fish, egg, shoes, shirts, fan, book, pen, cooking gas etc. On the other hand, all the goods which are not directly used to satisfy consumption but which are used in further production are called ‘Producer Goods’ or ‘Capital Goods’. The examples are seeds, fertilizers, tools, machines, raw materials etc.
4. Consumer Services and Producer Services:
   When services are used directly by consumers to satisfy their wants, they are called consumer services. When services are used by producers to produce other goods and services, they are called producer services. When the tailor stitches our shirt, it is a consumer service However when the tailor stitches a shirt for a readymade garments shop, the service rendered by him is a producer service.
5. Single Use and Durable Use Goods:
   Goods (both consumer goods and producer goods) which are only used or consumed for single time or only once are known as single use goods. Bread, milk, fruits, vegetables etc. are the example of single use consumer goods. On the other hand, seeds, fertilizers, raw materials etc. are the example of single use producer goods.
   Some goods (both consumer goods and producer goods) can be used for a considerable period, that is, they can be used again and again. They are called durable use goods. For example, table, chair, cloths, shoes etc. are the durable use consumer goods. On the other hand, tube wells, tractors, pump-sets etc. are the example of durable use producer goods,
6. Private Goods and Public Goods:
   On the basics of ownership goods can be classified into two groups. All the goods which are owned by private bodies are called private goods. For example, a car, a house, a motor­bike, a mobile phone, books, a television set etc. are the private goods.
   There are large number of goods which are collectively owned by the society, the public or the government. These are called public or government goods. For example, roads, bridges, hospitals, government schools etc. are the public goods or the social goods or the government goods.

Economic Resources

Characteristics Of Economic Resources

• Have utility - they have ability to be used
• Have money value - They have a value at which they can be exchanged for ownership
• Have alternative use - They can be put into different uses.
• Scarce in supply - They are not available in sufficient quantities
• Can be combined - They can be combined so as to produce different goods and services
• Can change ownership - Differennt resources can be used together.
• They are distributed - they are available in varying quantities at different places.

Types Of Economic Resources In Kenya

What Are Economic Resources?

Economic resources are the different factors of production used to produce all goods and services in the economy. Economic theory is primarily concerned with allocating these resources so that the production of goods and services is done most efficiently and effectively.

There are four general types of economic resources:

• Land or natural resources
• Labor
• Capital
• Entrepreneurial ability

Sustainable Ways Of Using Economic Resources

Economic sustainability is the practice of conserving natural and financial resources to create long-term financial stability. A system that's sustainable can last far into the future with minimal negative impacts.

In finance, this can mean reducing the worldwide consumption of valuable resources to ensure they're available to future generations to create financial stability and wealth. For example, by reducing the usage of fossil fuels and focusing on alternative fuel sources, companies, governments and consumers can help reduce the global impact of emissions and pollution from fossil fuels.

Here are some examples of economic stability:

Alternative energy

Alternative energy sources, such as wind power, solar power and hydropower, can offer a more sustainable, clean and affordable solution to energy needs. Much of the world depends on fossil fuels like coal, oil and gasoline, which have a limited supply and create greenhouse gas emissions.

Alternative energy sources depend on infinite natural processes or resources, which may make them more sustainable and affordable in the long term. Reducing fossil fuel consumption can help reduce tax burdens for consumers, decrease the costs of environmental impacts and create more energy equity among low-income populations, which can increase economic productivity.

Sustainable agriculture

Many farms are adopting sustainable agricultural practices to reduce soil degradation, which occurs from over-farming, and to reduce animal product consumption. Reducing food consumption and focusing on regenerative farming can help improve soil health, crop yields and the quality of farmed food and resources.

Regenerative farming is a practice farmers use to rotate crops for better soil health, instead of farming the same crops, like corn, all year. Improving soil health and reducing animal product consumption can help keep food costs low, reduce carbon emissions and environmental damage and encourage better habits.

Recycling and pollution reduction

Recycling and reducing pollution is a common economic and environmental stability practice that can help increase the value of materials. For example, a company producing aluminum cans can sustain operations by recycling used cans and creating molten aluminum for recasting, instead of mining for aluminum ore.

This practice can reduce the company's environmental impact, saving the region both cleanup and restoration costs and reducing the organization's mining costs. Reducing pollution can also help reduce worldwide cleanup and restoration costs and the costs of climate change.

Sustainable fisheries

Creating more sustainable fisheries can help reduce the environmental and economic impact of overfishing the oceans. Side effects of overfishing can include population declination, bycatch, or catching other species along with fish, and fishing equipment made of plastics and other materials discarded in waterways.

Adopting more sustainable practices, like reducing fish consumption worldwide and reducing bycatch and fishing pollution, could create a more sustainable fishing environment, resulting in more stable profits and economic health for the fishing industry. It can also help ocean populations recover, which is crucial for ecosystems across the globe.

Resource Mapping

Resource mapping is a strategy for identifying and analyzing the programs, people, services, and other resources that currently exist in the country. This information can help leaders better assess the needs of the country and to make informed decisions about where to focus change efforts.

Mapping Steps

1. Reach consensus on the parameters of the map—select a goal to map.
2. Select the data to be collected based on these parameters—determine what types of resources you would like to collect.
3. Develop tools to collect your data.
4. Collect data with help from stakeholders.
5. Conduct a community (or environmental) scan.
6. Synthesize, analyze, and interpret your data.
7. Communicate your findings.
8. Set priorities.
9. Develop related products.

Importance Of Economic Resources

Resources are significant because:

1. They satisfy human wants both individual and social,
2. They are a source or possibility of assistance,
3. They are a means of development and support,
4. They are an expedient,
5. They have capacity to take advantage of opportunities, and
6. One relies on them for aid, support and supply.

Business Communication

Communication is an essential element in the success of any business. The process of transferring information from one person to another, within and outside the business environment, is termed as ‘Business Communication.’ The term ‘Business Communication’ is derived from general communication which is associated with business activities. In other terms, communication between business parties or people for business-related tasks is considered as ‘Business Communication.’

Business Communication includes different aspects like marketing, public relations, customer relations, corporate and interpersonal communication, etc.

Basic elements of Business communication:

• Sender
• Business information
• Receiver
• Feedback

Importance Of Business Communication

1. Helps in increasing productivity: Effective business communication increases the productivity of staff by boosting up teamwork. It creates a trustworthy and understanding environment among employers and employees. Effective communication is related to cooperating with employees and understanding their needs and desires. By doing so, employees are able to accomplish their tasks more effectively and efficiently. Also, the scope of doing mistakes or errors during their work minimizes due to effective communication.
2. Helps in increasing customers: Customers are an important part of any business and effective business communication can facilitate in attracting new customers and retain the current customers. A well-defined marketing strategy and public relations campaign run by an organization generates the interest of customers in its goods or services and helps in building the corporate image in customers.
3. Enhances business partnerships: Business Communication also improves partnerships in business. It plays a significant role in dealing with external business clients or vendors. Vendors may be required to communicate on products regularly for improvements. Also, an effective and harmonious relationship with other businesses determines the further success of an organization. A business unit that has developed its image as an entity for easy partnership through its effective communication can attract other business units for forming business relationships with them.
4. Facilitates innovations in business: Effective business communication helps in business innovations as well as it facilitates employees to convey their ideas and suggestions openly. Similarly, at the time of launching any new product in the market, effective communication ensures the performance of the sales team, market acceptance of the product, fast delivery of products in the market, etc.
5. Information exchange: Business communication is required by an organization for exchanging information with internal and external stakeholders. This helps in achieving its goals effectively.
6. Preparation of plans and policies: Through effective business communication, organizations can make their plans and policies properly. Relevant information is required for preparing these plans and policies. Through communication, different managers source information through reliable channels.
7. Helps in solving problems or issues: Through different communication channels, managers get information about different routine and non-routine issues and based upon that they can take required actions to sort out those issues.
8. Facilitates decision-making: Effective decisions require up-to-date information. Using effective communication, managers can acquire information from different sources and can utilize it for making correct decisions.
9. Reduces chances of conflicts: Through effective communication different business parties can exchange information in a smooth way. This results in fewer conflicts, controversies, arguments between them.

Business Communication Methods

Different methods of communicating in a business are as below:

1. In-person (Face-to-Face) Business Communication: In-person communication is the most common and preferred method of business communication. As it is generally in the form of meetings or conferences which is face to face communication format. This requires refined in-person skills. This method also includes non-verbal communication i.e. body language. While having a conversation between two or more people in business, body language like gestures, facial expression, etc. also play a vital role in communicating a person’s attitude towards others.
   
2. Communication by email system: An e-mail has become the most widely used communication system in any business. Due to its feature of sending and receiving mass or multiple messages at a time, email is considered as one of the preferred methods in business communication. It also increases efficiency as emails can be sent and responded in fast mode. The conversation through email can be among two or more than two people and is the best substitute for formal face to face meetings as discussions can be done in an email system.
   
3. Web conferencing: In the web conferencing method of business communication, the internet is being used for communication in meetings, conferences, presentations, seminars, and imparting training. It includes features like sharing of files, screens, real-time chatting, recording, etc. This can be considered as the most effective way of interacting with people sitting at different locations. Web conferencing is done by using the phone (teleconferencing) or video equipment (videoconferencing).
   
4. Written communication: Written business communication is a formal and detailed form of communication than other methods. Different written communication tools include formal letters, brochures, posters, etc.
   
5. Other methods: There are other business communication methods like an instant messaging system. This technology is easy to use as one can easily connect with people while working offsite and have conversations without waiting so long. They also include WhatsApp, phone calls.

Production Of Goods And Services

Production: Refers to the creation of goods and services or increasing their usefulness through activities such as transporting them to where they are required. People who are involved in production of goods and services are referred to as producers.

Importance of Production

• To produce is independence.
  If you don’t produce, you will have to consume what has been produced.
  In this case, you have no choice but to the available options. People choose to be free and independent.
• The need for various goods
• Availability of goods and services: Production helps to ensure that goods and services are made
• Increase in wealth of people: Production assists people to accumulate wealth as a result of continuous employment. importance of production
• Increase in export potential: Production also assists a state or nation to boost her export of goods and services to other nations.
• Acquisition of skills: The engagement of people in production leads them to acquire special skills

Characteristics of Factors of Production

Fig 5.1. The organization of Production

Meaning: Factors of production refer to agents, components or resources which are combined together to produce goods and services. There are four factors of production. These are:

Labour

Labour - is skillful:  Labour becomes skillful through education and training.

• Labour is a human factor: Labour is a human factor hence its supply can easily be controlled== importance of production
• Labour requires motivation: For labour to perform efficiently and increase its productivity, it must be motivated in one way or the other. importance of production
• Labour is not predictable: Labour as a factor of production cannot be easily predicted.
• Labour is not fixed: The supply of labour, unlike land, is not fixed as it varies in quantity and quality.
• Labour is perishable: Knowledge can diminish overtime as a result of continued unemployment, under-employment, age and death.
• Labour controls other factors of production: Labour controls and combines all other factors of production to make them more meaningful to the society.
• Labour has initiative: Labour can act on its own initiative.

Types of labour

• Unskilled
• Semi-skilled
• Skilled
• professional

Classification Of Factors Of Production

Characteristics Of Land As A Factors Of Production

Types of land

• Residential
• Commercial
• Recreation
• Cultivation
• Extraction
• Uninhabitable

1. Fixed supply: The total land area of earth (in the sense of the surface area available to men) is fixed. Therefore, the supply of lands is strictly limited. It is, no doubt, possible to increase the supply of land in a particular region to some extent through reclamation of land from sea areas or deforestation.
2. No cost of production: Since land is a gift of nature, it has no cost of production. Since land is already in existence, no costs are to be incurred in creating it. In this sense, land differs from both labour (which has to be reared, educated and trained) and capital (which has to be created by using labour and other scarce resources or by spending money).
3. Differences in fertility: Another important feature of land is that it is not homogeneous. All grades (plots) of land are not equally productive or fertile. Some grades of land are more productive than others. And Ricardo argued that rent arises not only due to scarcity of land as a factor but also due to differences in the fertility of the soil.
4. Mobility:Land is not geographically mobile. But, it is occupationally mobile. In most parts of India, for example, land has many alternative uses. It might be used for farmland, roads, rail­ways, airlines, public parks, playgrounds, resi­dential housing, office buildings, shopping complex, and so on. Some of the land, for example, in hill area, of say, Shillong, or Darjeeling, has an extremely limited degree of occupational mobility, being useful perhaps for sheep grazing, golf course or as a centre of tourism.
5. Return: The income received by the owner of land is known as rent. It may be noted that rent is usually paid for something more than the use of land or another natural resource, but includes also an element of payment for another factor which is involved in making the resource available in a usable form.

Characteristics of Capital as a factor of production

• Capital is manmade factor of production
• Its mobile
• It’s a passive factor of production

Types of capital

• Fixed
• Working
• venture

Characteristics of an entrepreneur

An entrepreneur is a person who brings factors of production in one place. He uses them for the production process. he is the person who decides:

• What to produce
• Where to produce
• How to produce

A person who takes these decisions along with the associated risk is an entrepreneur.

X-tics of an entrepreneur

• He has imagination
• He has great administrative power
• An entrepreneur must be a man of action
• An entrepreneur must have the ability to organize
• He should be a knowledgeable person
• he must have a professional approach

Consumer concerns addressed in the production of goods and services

Learners to check on this

Marketing of Goods and Services

• A market can be defined as a place where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods, services and other relevant information is called a market. Both these parties can meet in a city, state, province, country and region. The market may be a physical or virtual.
• The one party (seller) sells a product or service to a buyer for money benefits. Most of the time there are more than single buyers and seller in the marketplace. The value and prices of product and service are based on the law demand and supply in the market.

Types of Markets

Physical Markets. Any physical market is a place where buyers and sellers physically meet that involve both parties in a transaction in exchange for money. Few good examples are departmental stores, shopping malls and retail stores

Virtual Markets / Internet Markets. Todays’ business environment such type of markets are increasing on a fast track. It is a place where the seller offers goods and services via online platform i.e. internet. Buyers and sellers are not required to physically meet or interact. Examples are Freelancer.com, Amazon.com.

Auction Market. An auction market is a place where sellers and buyers indicate the lowest and highest prices they are willing to exchange. This exchange takes place when both the sellers and buyers agree on a price. A good example is the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE).

What is Market Size

Market size refers to the total number of people in a specific market who has the potential to buy and sell products and services. Whenever companies launch a new product they are very interested to know the market size. For any market, two factors are very important:

• Total number of buyers and sellers
• Total money in the market on the annual basis

Marketing

Marketing is a process by which a product or service is introduced and promoted to potential customers. Without marketing, your business may offer the best products or services in your industry, but none of your potential customers would know about it. Without marketing, sales may crash and companies may have to close.

Types of Marketing

Where your marketing campaigns live depends entirely on where your customers spend their time. It's up to you to conduct market research that determines which types of marketing -- and which mix of tools within each type -- is best for building your brand. Here are several types of marketing that are relevant today, some of which have stood the test of time:

• Internet marketing: Inspired by an Excedrin product campaign that took place online, the very idea of having a presence on the internet for business reasons is a type of marketing in and of itself.
• Search engine optimization: Abbreviated "SEO," this is the process of optimizing content on a website so that it appears in search engine results. It's used by marketers to attract people who perform searches that imply they're interested in learning about a particular industry.
• Blog marketing: Blogs are no longer exclusive to the individual writer. Brands now publish blogs to write about their industry and nurture the interest of potential customers who browse the internet for information.
• Social media marketing: Businesses can use Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, and similar social networks to create impressions on their audience over time.
• Print marketing: As newspapers and magazines get better at understanding who subscribes to their print material, businesses continue to sponsor articles, photography, and similar content in the publications their customers are reading.
• Search engine marketing: This type of marketing is a bit different than SEO, which is described above. Businesses can now pay a search engine to place links on pages of its index that get high exposure to their audience. (It's a concept called "pay-per-click" -- I'll show you an example of this in the next section).
• Video marketing: While there were once just commercials, marketers now put money into creating and publishing all kinds of videos that entertain and educate their core customers.

The 4 Ps of Marketing

Essentially, these 4 Ps explain how marketing interacts with each stage of the business.

Consumers

A consumer is any individual or group that uses goods or services. Generally, this means an individual who pays for goods or services, although sometimes the good or service is not paid for, but is instead received as a gift or favor. Usually, the term is used when referring to the demand side of the market. For example, in economics, it is often said that consumers are influenced by price when they make their buying decisions.

Following are the things that customers look at for before buying a product.

1. Price: The price of the product is the first thing that almost 80% of the customers look at before buying a product. Because every customer has their own budget and they usually tend to spend within the budget unless they get some extraordinary quality.
2. Experience: Nowadays, everyone is busy and they want to buy things which are easily available and also there are so many alternatives available in the market for a certain product. Therefore, it is important to make the shopping experience as well as the quality of the product excellent. So, they don’t move to some other product.
3. Design: Design of the product should be attractive.
4. Functionality: The product should have all the functionalities that a customer expects while buying a product.
5. Convenience: The product and services should be convenient for the customer, otherwise, he/she will not buy the product.
6. Reliability: The product should be reliable and it should meet the customer’s needs every single time.
7. Compatibility: The product should be compatible with the other products that the customer is already using.

Following is a list of different types of customers.

1. Need-based customers :
   
   These customers shop for only specific products when they need them. They already know the section they are heading to when they enter a store. They usually don’t require an assistant to choose a product because they usually have knowledge about the product they want to buy. Therefore, it is very important to approach them with a planned strategy.
2. Loyal customers :
   
   These types of customers are very important for a business. This segment of the customers should be kept satisfied. They not only stay loyal to the company but also praise and recommend the product to their family and friends. Therefore, they also help the company to market its product by “word -of – mouth” free of cost. Usually, this segment of customers is small and they hardly make 20% of the total customers, but they are responsible for generating the maximum part of the total revenue of the company.
3. Discount customers :
   These are the types of customers who never buy a product on full price. They always look for a discount on the product they want to buy. Such customers never shop for anything off-sale. These types of customers make the biggest portion of total customers of a company. Discount customers are the least loyal customers and they easily move on when getting better offers by some other company.
4. Impulsive customers :
   
   Impulsive customers’ segment is a bonus segment for any business, as these customers don’t shop as per their need or because of ongoing sale. The shopping of these types of customers is highly influenced by their current mood. They usually tend to buy a product, if, at the time of shopping, they find it useful and good at that point in time.
5. Potential customers:
   Potential customers are not your customer yet, but they just need a little bit of convincing and assistance to make a purchase. These types of customers need a little bit of encouragement and attention before buying your product. To deal with such customers, you should show them some value and assist them by providing information about the products they are interested in.

Factors to consider when selecting a suitable market for goods and services

1. The product to be sold or produced
2. Personnel to manage the business
3. Amount of finance and other resources required
4. The market to be served (customers)
5. Types of employees required
6. Projection (level of achievement in future in terms of profit)
7. The name for the business

An attractive market has the following characteristics:

• It is sizeable (large) enough to be profitable given your operating cost. Only a tiny fraction of the consumers in China can afford to buy cars. However, because the country’s population is so large (nearly 1.5 billion people), more cars are sold in China than in Europe (and in the United States, depending on the month). Three billion people in the world own cell phones. But that still leaves three billion who don’t (Corbett, 2008).
• It is growing. The middle class of India is growing rapidly, making it a very attractive market for consumer products companies. People under thirty make up the majority of the Indian population, fueling the demand for “Bollywood” (Indian-made) films.
• It is not already swamped by competitors, or you have found a way to stand out in a crowd. IBM used to make PCs. However, after the marketplace became crowded with competitors, IBM sold the product line to a Chinese company called Lenovo.
• Either it is accessible or you can find a way to reach it. Accessibility, or the lack of it, could include geographic accessibility, political and legal barriers, technological barriers, or social barriers. For example, to overcome geographic barriers, the consumer products company Unilever hires women in third-world countries to distribute the company’s products to rural consumers who lack access to stores.
• The company has the resources to compete in it. You might have a great idea to compete in the wind-power market. However, it is a business that is capital intensive. What this means is that you will either need a lot of money or must be able to raise it. You might also have to compete with the likes of T. Boone Pickens, an oil tycoon who is attempting to develop and profit from the wind-power market. Does your organization have the resources to do this?
• It “fits in” with your firm’s mission and objectives. Consider TerraCycle, which has made its mark by selling organic products in recycled packages. Fertilizer made from worm excrement and sold in discarded plastic beverage bottles is just one of its products. It wouldn’t be a good idea for TerraCycle to open up a polluting, coal-fired power plant, no matter how profitable the market for the service might be.

ICT platforms for marketing Goods and services

They include:

• Online advertising – many businesses advertise through banners on websites. It provides to the customers quickly and easy response.
  
• Email marketing – it’s a form of direct marketing. It’s very fast and less expensive.
• Social media marketing – it’s a collection of online communication channels. It’s a community based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. Examples include: Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Tiktok
  
• Blogging –
  
• Target marketing- it’s about attracting a customer who will buy what you are selling.
  

Advantages

• Anywhere, anytime marketing
• Cost effective
• Fast

By using ICT, we can market anywhere, anytime in the world without being their physically.

• Marketing products on the internet costs less than marketing them through a physical retail outlet.
  
• The internet provides an important platform for building relationships with customers and increasing retention levels
  
• It is very fast
• User can get easily information about product.

• Introduction to Business Studies
  
  • Components of Business Studies
  • Importance Of Business Studies
  • Career Opportunities In The Field Of Business Studies
• Money
  • Uses Of Money In Daily Life
  • Themes And Symbols In The Kenyan Currency
• Personal Goals
  • General Goal Setting Tips
  • Starting to Set Personal Goals
• Talents and Abilities
  • Ways Of Nurturing Talents
  • Personal Talents and Abilities
  • Ethical Issues Related To Use Of Talents And Abilities In Business
  • Importance Of Nurturing Talents And Abilities

Introduction to Business Studies

• Business: Any activity that is carried out by an individual or an organization concerning provision of goods and services with a view to making profit.
• Business studies: Is the study/examination of the business activities in society. These activities are related to the production of goods and provision of services.
  
  • It can also be defined as the study of activities that are carried out in and around production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Components of Business Studies

Business studies consist of the following disciplines

1. Commerce
2. Accounting
3. Economics
4. Office practice
5. Entrepreneurship

• Commerce
  This is the study of trade and aids to trade. Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services or money. Aids to trade are human activities (services) that assist trade to take place.
• Economics
  This is the study of how human beings strive to satisfy their endless wants using the available scarce resources.
• Accounting
  This refers to a systematic way of recording business activities which all used for decision making.
• Office practice
  This refers to all activities that are carried out in an office e.g. communication, filling, clerical work, reproduction of documents etc.
• Entrepreneurship
  This is the study of activities involved in the process of identifying a business opportunity and acquiring the necessary resources to start and run a business. The person who carries out these activities is referred to as an entrepreneur.

Importance Of Business Studies

Some of the benefits of learning business studies include:

1. Assists the learners/members of the society to acquire knowledge and awareness of business terminologies which are necessary when discussing business issues such as profit and loss.
2. Assists the individuals in appreciating the role of business in society/in provision of goods and services.
3. It enables the learners to acquire basic knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the development of self and the nation by starting and operating business.
4. Equips the members of society with knowledge and skills necessary to start and run a business comfortably.
5. Makes the members of society to appreciate the need for good business management practices
6. Assists individual to acquire self-discipline and positive attitude towards work
7. Equips individual with abilities to promote co-operation in society through trade
8. Enables the individual to understand the role of government in business activities
9. Equips individuals with abilities to understand the role of communication and information technology in modern business management
10. Helps the individuals to develop positive attitudes towards the environment
11. Equips the individual with knowledge and skills required to evaluate business performance
12. It helps individual to develop various intellectual abilities such as inquiry, critical thinking, analysis, interpretation, rational judgement, innovation and creativity.
13. It enables learners to acquire skills for wise buying and selling.
14. It creates a firm foundation for further education and training in business and other related fields.
15. It enables one to understand and appreciate the basic economic issues that affect the society such as increase in prices of goods and services.

Career Opportunities In The Field Of Business Studies

• Auditor.
• Logistics analyst.
• Human resources specialist.
• Accountant.
• Operations analyst.
• Marketing manager.
• Financial advisor.
• Financial analyst
• Entrepreneur

Money

• whatever serves society in four functions: as a medium of exchange, a store of value, a unit of account, and a standard of deferred payment.
• Money is power if you utilize it with knowledge. Money is dangerous if you are greedy for money and utilize it without thought. – Vijay Sharma

Uses Of Money In Daily Life

• First, money serves as a medium of exchange, which means that money acts as an intermediary between the buyer and the seller. Instead of exchanging accounting services for shoes, the accountant now exchanges accounting services for money. This money is then used to buy shoes. To serve as a medium of exchange, money must be very widely accepted as a method of payment in the markets for goods, labor, and financial capital.
• Second, money must serve as a store of value. In a barter system, we saw the example of the shoemaker trading shoes for accounting services. But she risks having her shoes go out of style, especially if she keeps them in a warehouse for future use—their value will decrease with each season. Shoes are not a good store of value. Holding money is a much easier way of storing value. You know that you do not need to spend it immediately because it will still hold its value the next day, or the next year. This function of money does not require that money is a perfect store of value. In an economy with inflation, money loses some buying power each year, but it remains money.
• Third, money serves as a unit of account, which means that it is the ruler by which other values are measured.
• Money fulfills your personal and family needs and desires:
  Money has the power to buy goods and services. With money, a person can fulfill his daily living needs and desires. With money, you can buy food, clothes, a home, a car, holiday tour packages, and gifts. With money, you can buy a high-speed internet connection and good quality equipment for work and business.

Key security features of the Kenyan Currency

Themes And Symbols In The Kenyan Currency

Personal Goals

• Goals are defined as the desired states that people seek to obtain, maintain, or avoid. Personal goals are goals related to your work, relationship, finances, and other aspects of life.

There are three types of goals- process, performance, and outcome goals.

• Process goals are specific actions or ‘processes’ of performing. For example, aiming to study for 2 hours after dinner every day. Process goals are 100% controllable by the individual.
• Performance goals are based on personal standard. For example, aiming to achieve a 3.5 GPA. Personal goals are mostly controllable.
• Outcome goals are based on winning. For a college student, this could look like landing a job in your field or landing job at a particular place of employment you wanted. Outcome goals are very difficult to control because of other outside influences.

Process, performance, and outcome goals have a linear relationship. This is important because if you achieve your process goals, you give yourself a good chance to achieve your performance goals. Similarly, when you achieve your performance goals, you have a better chance of achieving your outcome goal.

General Goal Setting Tips

• set both short- and long-term goals
• set SMART goals
• set goals that motivate you
• write your goals down and put them in a place you can see
• adjust your goals as necessary
• Recognize and reward yourself when you meet a goal

Set all three types of goals- process, performance, and outcome – but focus on executing your smaller process goals to give you the best chance for success!

• specific – highly detailed statement on what you want to accomplish (use who, what, where, how etc.)
• Measurable- how will you demonstrate and evaluate how your goal has been met?
• Attainable- they can be achieved by your own hard work and dedication- make sure your goals are within your ability to achieve
• Relevant- how do your goals align with your objectives?
• Time based- set 1 or more target dates- these are the “by whens” to guide your goal to successful and timely completion (include deadlines, frequency and dates)

Be Clear About Your Purpose in Life

First, be clear about your purpose in life. Having a clear vision in life gives you direction. You know where you are coming from and where you are going. The destination is definite, and this gives you a foundation for your goal setting.

Why These Goals?

Having a foundation for goal setting gives you a destination. The next step is to look at the goals you have in mind and ask yourself why these goals in specific. Let’s say you want to get from Nairobi to Mombasa. You can walk, run, hire a taxi, take a bus, take a train or take a flight.
In the end, you will have to choose one means of transport to get you to Mombasa. If you take a bus, ask yourself why the bus? Why not walk or take a flight? If you can answer the why in your goals. And hopefully, your answer will not be because everyone is doing it, then you are on the right path.

Do The Goals Motivate You?

Do you get motivated when you look at your goals? Remember your why. If the answer to your why is because everyone is doing it, the motivation is going to low. When challenges set in and everyone gives up, you will give up with them or give up when others are still on the move.
Set goals that motivate you. Motivation has to come from the heart. Remember, this is a journey. It is not a destination in itself. Your inner drive will keep you moving when the going gets tough.

You Goals Must Be Specific To You

Your goals have to be specific to you. Do not set random goals just because that is what is expected from you. Let’s say you have a target to meet at the end of the month set by your company. The targets are not specific to you. In most cases, they are distinct to your department but general to you and your colleagues.
A successful person will take the targets set and personalize them. What is it you want to achieve at the end of the month as far as the goals set for your team are concerned? Do you want to meet the exceptions, or do you want to exceed them? Set your weekly and daily goals to reflect what you want to achieve as an individual.

Goals Have To Be Relevant To Your Higher Purpose In Life

Your goals must be relevant to your higher purpose in life. If not, you will deviate from your purpose or vision. Set goals to reflect, and feed your cause. The danger in working on plans that don’t align with your purpose or mission, you end up working for other people.

Proverbs 16:3 New International Version (NIV)

Commit to the Lord whatever you do, and he will establish your plans.

Starting to Set Personal Goals

You set your goals on a number of levels:

• First you create your "big picture" of what you want to do with your life (or over, say, the next 10 years), and identify the large-scale goals that you want to achieve.
• Then, you break these down into the smaller and smaller targets that you must hit to reach your lifetime goals.
• Finally, once you have your plan, you start working on it to achieve these goals.

This is why we start the process of setting goals by looking at your lifetime goals. Then, we work down to the things that you can do in, say, the next five years, then next year, next month, next week, and today, to start moving towards them.

Step 1: Setting Lifetime Goals

The first step in setting personal goals is to consider what you want to achieve in your lifetime (or at least, by a significant and distant age in the future). Setting lifetime goals gives you the overall perspective that shapes all other aspects of your decision making.
To give a broad, balanced coverage of all important areas in your life, try to set goals in some of the following categories (or in other categories of your own, where these are important to you):

• Career – What level do you want to reach in your career, or what do you want to achieve?
• Financial – How much do you want to earn, by what stage? How is this related to your career goals?
• Education – Is there any knowledge you want to acquire in particular? What information and skills will you need to have in order to achieve other goals?
• Family – Do you want to be a parent? If so, how are you going to be a good parent? How do you want to be seen by a partner or by members of your extended family?
• Artistic – Do you want to achieve any artistic goals?
• Attitude – Is any part of your mindset holding you back? Is there any part of the way that you behave that upsets you? (If so, set a goal to improve your behavior or find a solution to the problem.)
• Physical – Are there any athletic goals that you want to achieve, or do you want good health deep into old age? What steps are you going to take to achieve this?
• Pleasure – How do you want to enjoy yourself? (You should ensure that some of your life is for you!)
• Public Service – Do you want to make the world a better place? If so, how?

Spend some time brainstorming these things, and then select one or more goals in each category that best reflect what you want to do. Then consider trimming again so that you have a small number of really significant goals that you can focus on.

Talents and Abilities

For many people, the words “talent” and “ability” are interchangeable. Understanding the difference between them can make all the difference in how we live and work. Here at Pro/spur, one of the first lessons we share with our players is recognizing their talent vs. their ability. So what is the difference?

Talent is what you’ve been given.

Ability is how you grow the talent you’ve been given.

Right now, there are more than 8,000 pro players in Minor League baseball. Do you know how many of those players have enough talent alone to make it to the Big Leagues and stay there? The answer: not that many.

Ways Of Nurturing Talents

Create an Open Culture

Firms are a product of multiple people’s contributions. Each worker should feel like their words have weight and that their input is valued.
Everything starts with the workplace culture, which gives new starters the confidence to stick around and keeps more experienced personnel grounded and loyal. Encourage employees to speak up if they have any concerns or thoughtful ideas.

Develop Mentoring Schemes

Mentoring is an enormous part of nurturing talent. However, finesse is required in how your company approaches it. Vague instances of encouragement aren’t enough to keep workers motivated and performing well.

Introduce Automation

Workers with many responsibilities can soon become overwhelmed. The most overworked staff members may find little time to focus on their own professional development.
Automation can ease these burdens somewhat. These technologies can assume many of the admin tasks a worker needs to do. Signing paperwork, scheduling updates, responses to routine emails – these are all tasks automation can oversee instead of the employee. Work-related stress can be reduced as a result.

Offer Flexibility

Nurturing talent can’t be done under overly rigid work practices. Employees need to grow both personally and professionally and to do so effectively, they need a level of control.

Keep Innovating

Your business needs to aspire to be greater constantly. Only then can you expect your workers to adopt a similar attitude.
Of course, your business may be more concerned about surviving rather than thriving these days. Irrespective of your circumstances or the economic conditions you’re facing, your company must keep pushing to innovate and excel within its industry.

Personal Talents and Abilities

• Communication.
• Interpersonal skills.
• Leadership.
• Problem-solving.
• Time management.
• Adaptability.
• Critical thinking.
• Organization.

Five kinds of talent categories:

• Self-conceptual talents – like self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, and self-confidence.
• Social talents – like social awareness, communication, relationship management, collaboration, and influence.
• General talents – like language skills, mathematical abilities, reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and learning abilities.
• Specific expertise – like strategic thinking, arts, writing, research, sports, design, storytelling, and kinesthetic abilities.
• Fun talents – any cool talents such as exceptional taste, ventriloquism (ability to make your voice appear from somewhere else or with delay), and hypermobility, to name a few.

Ethical Issues Related To Use Of Talents And Abilities In Business

Ethical issues in business occur when a decision, activity or scenario conflicts with the organization’s or society's ethical standards. Both organizations and individuals can become involved in ethical issues since others may question their actions from a moral viewpoint.

1. Discrimination and harassment
   Two of the most significant ethical issues that HR professionals and managers face are discrimination and harassment. The consequences of discrimination and harassment in the workplace can negatively impact the finances and reputation of the organization. Many countries have anti-discrimination laws to protect employees from unfair treatment. Some anti-discrimination areas include:
   
   • Age: Organizations and internal policies cannot discriminate against employees who are older.
   • Disability: To prevent disability discrimination, it's important to accommodate and provide equal treatment for employees with mental or physical disabilities.
   • Equal pay: Equal pay focuses on ensuring that all employees receive equal compensation for similar work, regardless of religion, gender or race.
   • Pregnancy: Pregnant employees have a right not to be discriminated against on account of their pregnancy.
   • Race: Employees should receive equal treatment, regardless of ethnicity or race.
   • Religion: Employees' religious beliefs should not affect how anyone within the organization treats them.
   • Sex and gender: An employee's sex and gender identity should not influence their treatment while working at an organization.
2. Ethics in accounting practices
   Laws require organizations to maintain accurate bookkeeping practices. Unethical accounting practices are a serious issue, especially for publicly traded companies. The legislation specifies financial report requirements aimed at protecting shareholders and consumers. All organizations have to keep accurate financial records and pay taxes to attract investment and business partners regardless of the size of the company.
3. Nepotism or favoritism
   As a hiring manager or HR professional, you may want to employ an acquaintance or family member because of your connection to them. Even if you adhere to recruitment policies to ensure a fair process, some employees may still consider this as nepotism or favoritism. Favoritism occurs when managers treat some employees better than others for no professional reason. This can reduce productivity and job satisfaction in other employees, which may negatively impact the entire organization.
4. Workplace health and safety
   All employees have a right to a safe working environment and work conditions.

Importance Of Nurturing Talents And Abilities

Nurturing internal talent can benefit your business in many ways:

Facilitate success. Nurturing the talent you already have allows you to facilitate opportunities for cross-training, career development and networking.

Create a culture of innovation and empowerment. Nurturing your existing talent creates a culture of innovation and empowerment, in which employees know they are valued and they are motivated to strive for excellence

Open leadership opportunities. Nurturing the talent of your teams enables you to foster a culture in which leadership opportunities abound.

• Meaning Of State, Kingdom And Empire
  • The Ancient Egypt
  • The Great Zimbabwe
  • The Kingdom of Kongo
  • Contributions Of Early African Civilisation To The Modern World
• Social Organisation Of Selected African Communities Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Ogiek Community Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Zulu Community Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Asante Community Up To 1900
• Human Diversity And Inclusion
  • Personality Attributes Which Make Individuals Different From Others
  • Peace and Conflict Resolution 

Meaning Of State, Kingdom And Empire

State
A territory is considered as an organised political community under one government
Empire
An extensive group of semi autonomous states ruled by one ruler
Kingdom
A state or territory ruled by a king or queen

The Ancient Egypt

Factors that led to growth of Ancient Egypt Civilization

1. Presence of river nile
   It the annual flood of river nile and the use of shadoof method of irrigation boosted agriculture
2. Early technology
   It ushered in the bronze stage where copper and tin were used to make simple tools such as chisels and needles
   Artisans also made pots for storage and cookery purposes using potter’s wheel
3. Population
   High population in Ancient Egypt provided ready manpower and market
4. Strong military and leadership
   They ensured growth of the kingdom through conquests and assimilation of conquered neighbours into the empire
5. Use of hieroglyphic
   The formal writing helped keep reliable and accurate records in religion, government and history
6. Use of the calendar
   Tracking of days and monitoring events such as annual flooding of the nile, planting and harvesting period
7. Specialised workers
   They worked in various institutions. They helped in keeping recods in the Egyptian empire.
   They recorded harvest, finances and history

The Great Zimbabwe

Great Zimbabwe was a city near Masvingo in the central part of the modern day Zimabwe, Mozambique and Botstwana.
It existed between 1000BC to 1500BC
Zimbabwe is a shone word meaning “stone houses”
Great Zimbabwe had a centralized government with hereditary kings. This system of government led to the rise and growth of the kingdom

Factors that led to the growth of the Great Zimbabwe civilization

1. Strong agricultural economy
2. Existence of several minerals deposits such as gold, copper
3. Trade
4. Strong leadership
5. Acquisition of firearms in exchange of goods
6. Strong army
7. Religious beliefs brought them together

The Kingdom Of Kongo

Factors that led to the growth of kingdom of Kongo

1. Strategic location of the kingdom
2. Favourable climate and the kingdom its closeness to congo river which supported agriculture throughout the year
3. Arrival of Portuguese
4. Religion
5. Trade
6. Christianity

Locating ancient kingdoms on a map of Africa

Pupil’s activity
Page 77-78

Contributions Of Early African Civilisation To The Modern World

• Modern civilisation owes ts current development to the ancient civilization.
• Ancient Egypt was the beginning of building designs and construction of permanent buildings we have today.
• The hieroglyphics form of writing in Egypt used to keep records developed into the modern writing and education
• The knowledge of planning and prediction of seasons based on calendar started in the early civilisation. Today it is has been developed further to include weather forecasting in predicting accurate changes.
• The industrial development in the ancient kingdoms was based on simple skill. Copper and tin were used in ancient Egypt to make items. Today most of the industries use metals and alloys to make construction and infrastructural equipment.
• The modern irrigation technology barrows a lot from the ancient irrigation techniques such as shadoof. This has been applied in the agricultural sector
• Tools such as jembes/hoes used in farming today were developed in the ancient civilisation
• The political structure of modern government resembles the early civilisation goverment

Social Organisation Of Selected African Communities Up To 1900

Locating areas by the Ogiek, Zulu and Asante communities in Africa

PUPILS’ ACTIVITY
PAGE 81

Social Organisation Of The Ogiek Community Up To 1900

Ogiek are southern nilotic speakers
Most of them live in the county of nakuru, mau and mt elgon forests

• Family was the basic unit among the ogiek community
• The lineage was responsible for enforcing traditional law and order
• Father was head of the family
• The ogiek were polygamous
• There was division of labour among the ogiek community
  Men provide for the family needs, provide leadership and security
  Women worked in homestead, bear children and do household chores
  Children helped with household chores, cultivating in farms and artisanship
• The ogiek were a patriarchal society- men owned property and passed it to their sons
• The ogiek believed in one supreme being called Tororet
• They believed also in the existence of ancestral spirits called Oiik
• They had diviners who could foretell the future using supernatural powers
• Both boys and girls were initiated
  Boys ceremony was called tumdo op went
  Girls ceremony was called tumbo op tiipik
• Intiated boys of the same age group sets known as ipinda
• The ogiek used plants and herbs from forest for treating diseases

Social Organisation Of The Zulu Community Up To 1900

Zulu are Ngni people, bantu speaking
They occupy Kwazulu natal province in South africa
In the Ngumi languages izulu means heaven or weather
The zulu clans referred to as the isizwe
The zulu society was organised into parilineal sibs. The sibs were further divide into lineages which were composed of descendants of a common ancestor
Most households comprised extended families who lived in one household called kraal
Men inherited everything. Inheritance was patrilineal
The zulu people were polygamous. Men married many wives and lived with them with the extended family in the kraal.
Men paid dowry in terms of cows and gifts during the weeding day umabo
The zulu community believed in Umhlanga or reeds dance ceremony
Beadwork was a prominent wttire that worn at the Umahlanga
Beadworks was a sign of communication
It also symbolised wealth status of a person
Zulu believed in one God called uNkulunkulu
The controlled day to day human life of the Zulu community
The zulu had traditional mediceine men who treated the sick

Social Organisation Of The Asante Community Up To 1900

Asante are Akan speaking people
They live in the central part of the Modern day Ghana
Are organsised into clans whch is headed by a chief
Each clan speaks its own dialect of the Aken language
They believe in one supreme creator called Nyame
Ancestors were believed to connect people to Nyame
Asante empire leader was called Asatehene
He also acted as a spiritual leader
Omamhene and chiefs were all religious leaders who presided over religious ceremonies
Golden stool was th symbol of national unity in the Aasnte empire
It symboised ones and authority from the Asantehene
It was based in Kumasi, the capital of Asant empire
Odwira festival was an annual ceremony
They believed in the spirits of the departed rulers
Asante were socially stratified into 5 main divions
1^st division – king and those close to the king
- Lived in the capital of Kumasi
- Were wealthy and lived in luxury
2^nd division – consisted of the chiefs and top officials who assisted the king in enforcing law and order
3^rd division – those who had acquired a lot of wealth hence respect in the society
4^th division – comprised of ordinary farmers, traders and fishermen
5^th division – the lowest class was for the slaves
Asante families were extebded and matrilineal – mother’s brother was the legal guardian of her children
Asante were experts in form of decoration, logos, arts, sculture and pottery
These were known as Adinkra symbols

Comparing the social organisation of thr Ogiek, Zulu, and Asante community up to 1900

Human Diversity And Inclusion

Personality Attributes Which Make Individuals Different From Others

Personality attributes are qualities or characteristics that differentiate the character, action and attitude of a person from one another

Desirable and undesirable personality attributes in a multicultural society

Peace and Conflict Resolution

Peace
A state of calmness when there is no war
Conflict resolution
This is the process or act of solving or settling a disagreement.

Peace and conflict for personal well being

• Human Origin
  • Traditional Stories On Human Origin
  • Religious Stories On Human Origin
  • Factors Proving That Africa Is The Cradle Of Humankind
• Evolution
  • Stages of Man's Evolution 

Human Origin

Traditional Stories On Human Origin

This is an attempt by communities of people to explain their origin.
It is given through Oral Traditions, myths and legends.
It mainly states that the first people were created by God

1. Kikuyu community
   According to the Agikuyu, God (Ngai) appeared and created their ancestors (Gikuyu and Mumbi) at Mukurwe Wa Gathanga near present day Muranga
   Gikuyu and Mumbi gave birth to 9 daughters who later formed the nine class
2. Bukusu
   The bukusu of wetern Kenya belives that the fist man was called Mwambu.
   He was made from mud by WELE KHAKABA (God the creator) at a place called Mumbo which means west.
   God created a wife for him. Mwambu and his wife moved from Mumbo to the foothills of Mt. Masaba-mt elgon- where their descendants grew in numbers to become the Abaluhya community
3. Maasai
   Once upon a time Enkai (God) owned all the cattle in the world. One day he opened the sky and replaced all the cattle he owned from heaven to earth using a long rope.
   Enkai created 3 communities on earth
   The Torrobo(also the Ogiek) , the gikuyu whom God bless with seed and grain and the Maasai whom God blessed with all the cattle of the world
4. Akamba community
   The akamba community believes that God was called Mulungu. He created the first man MUNDU and woman KIVETI.
   They were then placed on top of Nzaui Hill in makueni.
   He blessed them with children and livestock
5. Nandi community
   According to the Nandi, the first two people came from the knees of a giant man, which began to swell until they burst. A man came from one knee and a woman from the other. These became the ancestors of the Nandi-speaking people of Kenya. This is an example of myths in certain communities that do not directly refer to God‟s creation.

Religious Stories On Human Origin

This presents man and everything else as having been created by God.
It is contained mainly in

1. The Bible (used by Christians)
   God created the heaven and earth according to Genesis chapter 2
2. The Quran (used by Muslims).
   Islam believes that all living and non living things were created by Allah
3. Hindu
   The universe was created by Brahma. He is regarded as the hindu god of creation

Factors Proving That Africa Is The Cradle Of Humankind

• African Savannas were ideal for primates.
• The moist, warm and varied climate supported animal and plant life.
• Archaeological sites were discovered in the Great Lakes region of eastern Africa and along the Great Rift Valley. This confirms that hominids were living in this region by the time the rift valley was being formed.
• The earliest apes and various animals may have first lived around what is now Lake Victoria and the rift valley, then some went northwards into Europe and Asia. This was because, at that time, areas along the Equator (especially central and west Africa) were covered in thick forest. Around the Great lakes of East Africa was the Savannah (grassland with scattered trees and bushes). It was in this environment that man had his first home.
• Due to earth quakes and volcanic eruptions during the formation of the great rift valley, allot of dust was brought up, which covered places where hominids had left their weapons, tools, their own bones, and those of other animals. These became archaeological sites in east Africa
• Remains found in Africa especially Eastern Africa are evidence that Africa is the cradle of mankind.
•   
•  

Evolution

Evolution is a natural process of gradual and continuous change of living organisms from a lower (simpler) state to a better-adapted (complex) and superior one.
Archaeological site or prehistoric site
Is a place where human remains were found
Archaeologists
Are scientists who excavated the human remains for study
Fossils
Human remains

Stages Of Man’s Evolution

1. Ramapithecus also called kenyapithecus
   The 15-12 million year-old remains of Ramapithecus were found by Mary and Louis Leakey at Fort Ternan near kericho and also at Samburu hills and in the Lakes Turkana and Baringo basins. Ramapithecus and other manlike creatures were also discovered in Europe, India and China.
   Characteristics of Ramapithecus
   
   • He was manlike.
   • He had small canines.
   • He was quadrapedal (he moved on his four limbs), though he occasionally walked on two legs
2. Australopithecus/southern ape/zinjathropus
   Remains of Australopithecus were found at Taung in Botswana in 1924 by Raymond Dart, at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959 and throughout eastern Africa e.g. regions around Lake Natron in Tanzania, Lake Turkana in Kenya and Omo River valley in Ethiopia.
   Characteristics of Australopithecus
   • He was the earliest most manlike hominid.
   • He had a pelvis and leg that were similar to modern man‟s.
   • He was bipedal (walked on two limbs).
   • Could defend themselves.
   • Could attack their enemies.
   • Could see or sense impending danger from a distance.
   • Could grasp objects with ease.
   • May have been hairy, short and strong.
   • Had a large face and low forehead.
   • Had stereoscopic vision.
   • Had much larger teeth, skull and jaws.
   • His brain was smaller than modern man‟s, but larger than that of the most intelligent ape: the Gorilla.
3. Homo habilis (Practical man).
   This was the first species of the genus Homo. His two and a half to one and a half million- year old remains were found at Olduvai Gorge by Jonathan Leakey in 1964, Hadar and Omo River valley in Ethiopia and Koobi-For a in the lake Turkana area in 1972.
   Characteristics of Homohabilis
   • He was five feet tall.
   • He had a skull similar to modern man‟s in shape.
   • He was omnivorous.
   • He could grasp objects.
   • He made and used tools.
4. HOMOERECTUS (upright man).
   Homoerectus lived between two million to two hundred thousand years ago.
   • He was five and a half feet tall.
   • He was bipedal (walked on two legs).
   • He made and used tools, such as hand-axes, crude spears and arrowheads from stone, bone and wood.
5. Homo sapiens (Thinking/Intelligent man).
   Homo sapien appeared between two hundred thousand and a hundred and fifty thousand years ago.
   Characteristics of Homosapien
   • He was under six feet tall
   • He had small teeth.
   • He had a steep and well-rounded forehead.
   • He had long straight legs.
   • He made a variety of more refined tools i.e. microliths.
   • He was a fisherman and hunter-gatherer.
   • He domesticated plants and animals.
   • Remains of Homosapien were found at:
     
     • Eliye springs near Lake Turkana,
     • Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya,
     • Bodo and Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
     • Ngaloba in Tanzania.

• Weather
  • Elements Of Weather
• Factors to Consider when Siting a Weather Station
  • Constructing Selected Instruments For Measuring Elements Of Weather
  • Historical Information

Weather

Weather is the daily atmospheric conditions of a place at a particular time.

Elements Of Weather

1. Temperature
   
   • Measure or degree of hotness or coldness of a place
2. Humidity
   
   • The amount of water vapour or moisture in the atmosphere
3. Precipitation
   
   • All forms of moisture which fall from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface
   • Rainfall is a form of precipitation formed from clouds that in form of water droplets
4. Atmospheric pressure
5. Wind
   • Moving air on the surface of the earth
6. Sunshine
   • Direct rays of sunlight on the surface of the earth
7. Cloud cover
   • Mass of tiny droplets of water or ice formed through condensation

Analysis and interpretation of weather conditions

Diurnal/daily Temperature range
-Difference between the maximum and minimum temperature for any one day.

Mean Daily Temperature
-Average of the maximum and the minimum daily temperatures.

Mean Monthly temperature
-Sum of mean daily temperatures in a month divided by the number of days in that month.

Mean Monthly minimum Temperature
-Sum of daily minimum temperatures divided by the number of days in that month.

Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
-Sum of daily maximum temperatures divided by the number of days in that month.

Mean Annual Temperature
-Sum of mean monthly temperatures divided by 12.

Mean Annual Temperature Range
-Difference between the highest and the lowest mean monthly temperatures in a year.

Monthly Rainfall Total
-Sum of rainfall recorded in a month.

Annual Rainfall Total
-Sum of monthly rainfall totals for 12 months.

Mean Monthly Rainfall
-Sum of rainfall totals for a particular month over several years divided by the number of the years of observation.

Mean Annual Rainfall
-Sum of mean monthly rainfall for 12 months of the year.

Factors To Consider When Siting A Weather Station

Weather Station

• A place where observation, measuring and recording of weather elements is done
  

Factors to Be Taken Into Account When Sitting a Weather Station

1. Open space
   
   • An open place where there is little obstruction of weather elements.
2. Accessible place
   
   • Accessible place so that recording can be done easily.
3. Gently sloping land
   
   • A fairly level or gently sloping ground (5◦) so that it’s easy to position weather instruments.
4. Security
   
   • The place should have security
5. The place should provide a wide view of the surrounding landscape and the sky.
6. The site should be free from flooding.

Constructing Selected Instruments For Measuring Elements Of Weather

Instruments for Measuring Elements of Weather

1. Thermometer- measures temperature
2. Hygrometer- measures humidity
3. Rain gauge-measures rainfall
4. Barometer-measures air pressure
5. Sunshine recorder-measures sunshine duration and intensity
6. Wind vane –measures wind direction
7. Anemometer-measures wind speed

1. Constructing a wind stock
   PUPIL’S ACTIVITY
   PAGE 52
   Materials needed
   1. A paper cup
   2. Clay and plasticine
   3. A pin
   4. Drinking straw
   5. Marker pen
   6. A white circular cardboard
   7. Square and triangular paper cuttings
   8. A pencil with a rubber head
      
2. Constructing a rain gauge
   PUPIL’S ACTIVITY
   PAGE 53
   Materials needed
   1. A 2-litre plastic bottle
   2. Ruler
   3. A ballpoint pen
   4. Masking tape
   5. A scalpel or pair of scissors
      
3. Constructing a Windsock
   PUPIL’S ACTIVITY
   PAGE 53-54
   Materials needed
   1. Cylindrical bag
   2. String
   3. A scalpel
   4. Water paints
   5. An empty plastic fat/magarine tin
   6. Masking tape or cellotape
   7. A pole with a pointed end
   8. Painting brushes or chewed sticks
      

Significance of weather to human

1. Helps us to be aware of natural calamities related to weather before they occur so as to take precautionary measures.
2. Guiding tourists on when to visit national parks.
3. Helps farmers to plan their activities such as planting, harvesting, etc.
4. Ensures air and water transport is carried out safely.
5. Helps sporting people to plan their training and competition schedules.
6. Helps people to plan many other activities such as mining, electricity generation, holiday events, etc.
7. Helps fishing communities to plan their activities

Historical Information

Sources of historical information in the society

1. Monuments
2. Caves
3. Historical pictures
4. Folk songs
5. Old coins
6. Recorded folk stories
7. Archaeological sites
8. Textbooks
9. Articles
10. Myths
11. Artefacts,
12. Fossils

Primary and secondary sources of information

Primary source is historical information that are created during the time period studied or were created at a later age by participant in even being practised
Secondary source is historical information that interprets or analyses a historical phenomenon

Ways of preserving historical information

Significance of historical information in providing evidence of past accounts

• The Earth And The Solar System
  • The Origin of the Solar System
  • The Position Of The Earth In The Solar System
• Rotation Of The Earth
  • Effects of Rotation of the Earth
• Revolution of the Earth
  • Effects Of The Revolution Of The Earth
• The Internal Structure Of The Earth

The Earth And The Solar System

Solar system is the group of heavenly bodies comprising the sun and the planets.

The Origin Of The Solar System

1. The passing star theory
   A star with a greater gravitational pull passed near the sun
   It attracted large quantities of gaseous materials from the sun
   The materials split, cooled and condensed to form planets
   The planets were set in orbit by the passing star
2. The nebula cloud theory
   There was a slowly rotating cloud of dust and gas called Nebula
   It cooled and began to contact
   Rotation speed increased and successive rings of gaseous materials were formed.
   The rings condensed to form planets
   The central gaseous material remained as the sun

Size of the earth

Equatorial diameter-12756km
Equatorial circumference-40085km
Polar diameter-39995km
Surface area of the earth-510×10⁶ km²
Water surface - 73%.

Mercury
Nearest from the sun
Its 58m km from the sun
Has no satellites
Takes approximately 88 earth days to revolve around the sun

Venus
2^nd planet from the sun
It’s 108m km from the sun
One of the brightest planets
Can be seen clearly with naked eyes
Takes approximately 225 earth days to revolve around the sun
Slightly smaller than the earth
Has no satellites
Together with the earth they are called twin planets due to having many similarities

Mars
Also called The Red Planet because when it’s observed through a telescope it appears reddish.
The 4^th from the sun
Slightly smaller than the earth
Approximately 228m km from the sun
Takes 687 earth days to revolve around the sun
Between Mass and Jupiter there are small celestial bodies called planetoids.
Has no satellite.

Jupiter
5^th planet from the sun
Approximately 778m km from the sun
Largest in the universe
Rotates on its own axis at very fast speed
Has flattened poles due to its fast speed of rotation
Has very thick layers of ice on its surface
takes 12 earth years to revolve around the sun
Has 16 satellites

Saturn
6^th planet from the sun
Second largest planet
Approximately 1427m km from the sun
Takes 29 ½ earth years to revolve around the sun
Has a ring around it
Has 18 satellites

Uranus
7^th planet from the sun
About 4 times bigger than the earth
Approximately 2870m km from the sun
Also rotates very fast
Also has flattened poles due to fast speed of rotation
It appears greenish foe being surrounded by methane gas
Has 8 satellites
Takes 84 earth years to revolve around the sun

Neptune
One of the farthest from the sun
8^th planet from the sun
Approximately 4497m km from the sun
Has 8 satellites
Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun
Very similar in size, colour and character with Uranus

The shape of the earth

The shape of the earth is called geoid/ovoid/oblate spheroid due to being an imperfect sphere by being wide at the equator and flat at the poles.

The Position Of The Earth In The Solar System

The 3^rd planet from the sun
The earth and the heavenly bodies make the universe
The only planet that supports life
The home of man
Approximately 149m km from the sun
Takes 365 ¼ days to revolve around the sun
Has one satellite, the moon

Rotation Of The Earth

Movement of the earth on its own axis (imaginary line through the centre from N pole to S pole
Rotates through 360º
Takes 24 hours (day) to complete 1 rotation
Rotates in an anticlockwise direction (west to east)

Effects of Rotation of the Earth

1. Creates day and night because at any one time one side of the earth faces the sun (day) and the other remains in darkness (night).
2. Causes deflection of winds and ocean currents in the N hemisphere to the left and in the S hemisphere to the right.
3. It causes rising and falling of ocean tides.
4. Causes time difference between longitudes

Effects of Rotation of the Earth on human activities

Revolution Of The Earth

• Movement of the earth in its orbit around the sun.
• It’s in anticlockwise direction.
• The orbit of the earth’s revolution is elliptical.
• Takes 365 ¼ days in a year or 366 days in a leap year (every 4 years).
• The sun moves from the tropic of cancer to the equator and then towards tropic of Capricorn and back to the tropic of cancer.
• 21^st march and 23^rd September are called equinoxes because the length of day and night is equal. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the equator.
• 21^st June is called summer solstice because its summer in the N hemisphere. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the tropic of cancer.
• 22^nd December is called winter solstice because its winter in the S. hemisphere. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at noon at the tropic of Capricorn.
• Solstice is the period of maximum tilting of the earth towards the sun.
  

Effects Of The Revolution Of The Earth

1. Causes the four seasons summer, autumn, winter and spring due to the movement of overhead sun causing changes in the heat belt.
2. Causes variation of day and night’s lengths due to the earth’s axis being inclined to the path of revolution at an angle of 60◦.
   
   1. Equinoxes have equal lengths of day and night.
   2. Summers have longer days and shorter nights.
   3. Winters have longer nights and shorter days.
      
3. Causes changes in the altitude of the midday sun due to the earth’s orbit being elliptical.
   
   • Highest altitude during equinox
   • Lowest altitude during solstices
4. Causes lunar eclipse due to revolution bringing the earth in line with the sun and the moon.

Effects of the Revolution of the earth on human activities

The Internal Structure Of The Earth

1. Crust/Lithosphere
   
   • Outermost layer of the earth
   • Made of soils and other loose deposits of sand
   • The dominant rocks are granites.
   • Extends 0-50km
   • Has 2 layers
     
     1. Sial
        
        • Also called continental crust
        • Made of light coloured rocks
        • Called sial because it’s made up of silica and aluminium.
     2. Sima
        
        • Also called oceanic crust
        • Mainly made of basaltic rocks which are brittle.
        • Called sima because it is made of silica magnesium and iron.
2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho)
   • A definite zone of discontinuity between the crust and the mantle.
   • Was discovered by Dr. Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909.
3. The Mantle/Asthenosphere
   • Layer lying between the crust and the core
   • Made of iron and magnesium
   • Has two layers
     1. Upper mantle
        • Rocks are more elastic than those of sima.
        • Temperature is about 1000°c.
     2. lower mantle
        • Rocks are like very viscous liquid.
        • Temperature ranges between 1000°c to 3000°c.
4. Gutenberg Discontinuity
   A definite zone of discontinuity between mantle and core.
5. Core/barysphere/Centrosphere
   • The innermost/central layer of the earth.
   • Has 2 layers
     1. Outer Core
        • Composed of very dense rocks
        • Made up of nickel and iron
        • Temperatures are up to 3700°c.
     2. Inner Core
        • A solid mass of mainly iron
        • Temperatures are estimated to be 4500°c to 5000°c.
6. The Atmosphere
   Layer of gases surrounding the earth.
   The earth revolves with it because its held onto it by gravity
   It’s about 330km thick.
   Composition of the Atmosphere
   • Gases-exist as a mixture
   • Smoke particles
   • Dust particles
   • Water vapour
7. hydrosphere
   Ocean and seas

• Maps And Mapwork
  • Position of Africa
  • Countries That Makes Up The Africa Continent
  • Locating Places And Features On A Map Using Latitudes And Longitudes
• Pictures, Plan And Maps
  • Types Of Maps

Maps And Mapwork

A map is a representation of the earth or part of it on a flat surface.

Position of Africa

• Africa lies between latitude 37ºN and 35ºS and on longitude 18ºW and 52ºE.
• Separated by water from all other continent except at the point where it joins Asia.
• Mostly Easterly point is called ras hafun(cape guardafui)
• Mostly westerly is cape verde
• Mostly northerly is cape bon
• Mostly southerly is cape agulhas
• Africa is connected to sinai peninsula by suez canal
• Separated from Spain by strait of gibraltar
• Separated from Arabia by strait of bab el-mandeb

Shape of Africa

The northern half is very wide while the southern is much narrower
At the cape guardafui extends outwards in the shape of a horn therefore the horn of Africa

Size of Africa

Africa is the second largest continent in the world
Has an area of about 30.3 million square kilometres (20% of the total land surface)
It measures 8000 km from north to south and 7400km from east to west
Other continents

1. Asia – 43608000km²
2. Africa – 30335000km²
3. North America – 25349000km²
4. South America – 17611000km²
5. Antarctica – 13340000km²
6. Europe – 10498000km²
7. Australia – 8923000km²

Countries That Makes Up The Africa Continent

Africa has the largest number of countries in the world making o total of 55 countries

1. Algeria 2381741km²
2. Angola 1246700km²
3. Benin 115773km²
4. Botswana 600372km²
5. Burkina faso 274200km²
6. Burundi 28490km²
7. Cameroon 475900km²
8. Cape verde 7275km²
9. Central africa republic 622984km²
10. Chad 1284000km²
11. Comoros 2117km²
12. Congo 34965km²
13. Cόte d’ ivoire 322463km²
14. Djibouti 23310km²
15. DR congo 2345409km²
16. Egypt 1101449km²
17. Equatorial guinea 28051km²
18. Eritrea 124320km²
19. Ethiopia 1221900km²
20. Gabon 267667km²
21. Gambia 11369km²
22. Ghana 238537km²
23. Guinea 245957km²
24. Guinea bisau 36125km²
25. Kenya 582648km²
26. Lesotho 30460km²
27. Liberia 111369km²
28. Libya 1775000km²
29. Madagascar 592900km²
30. Malawi 118484km²
31. Mali 1240192km²
32. Mauritania 1030700km²
33. Mauritius 2040km²
34. Morocco 724730km²
35. Mozambique 802000km²
36. Niger 1267000km²
37. Namibia 824295km²
38. Nigeria 923773km²
39. Rwanda 26338km²
40. Sӑo Tome & principe 964km²
41. Senegal 196192km²
42. Seychelles 453km²
43. Sierra leone 72325km²
44. Somalia 626541km²
45. South africa 1221037km²
46. South sudan 644329km²
47. Sudan 1886068km²
48. Eswatini 17368km²
49. Tanzania 947419km²
50. Togo 56785km²
51. Tunisia 164154km²
52. Uganda 236036km²
53. Western sahara 252120km²
54. Zambia 752618km²
55. Zimbabwe 390759km²

The largest country in Africa is Algeria while the smallest is Seychelles.
Offshore island also form part of Africa;

1. Seychelles
2. Sao Tome and principe
3. Mauritius
4. Comoros
5. Madagascar
6. Cape verde

Locating Places And Features On A Map Using Latitudes And Longitudes

• When giving the position of a place or features we with start with the latitude and then longitude
  Major latitudes and longitudes
• Major longitude is called prime meridian also called Greenwich meridian
• In Africa it passes through:
  
  1. Ghana(Accra)
  2. Algeria
  3. Burkina faso
  4. Mali
• All other longitudes are measured and named from prime meridian up to 180 ̊ on both sides
• Major latitude are 3 passing through Africa

1. Equator 0 ̊ - divides Africa into two parts
   It passes through;
   
   1. Gabon
   2. Congo
   3. DR congo
   4. Uganda
   5. Kenya
   6. Somalia
2. Tropic of cancer 23½ ̊ north of equator
   It passes through;
   1. Western sahara
   2. Mali
   3. Mauritania
   4. Algeria
   5. Libya
   6. Egypt
3. Tropic of capricorn 23½ ̊ south of equator
   It passes through:
   1. Namibia
   2. Botswana
   3. South africa
   4. Mozambique
   5. Madagascar

• Other important lines of latitude are far from africa are:
  
  1. Arctic circle 66½ ̊N
  2. Antarctic circle 66½S