• Soil Pollution Control
  • Causes of Soil Pollution
  • Effects Of Soil Pollution
  • Possible Solutions to Soil Pollution
  • Safe Farming Practices That Prevent Soil Pollution
  • Benefits of Soil Conservation
• Water Conservation Methods In Farming
  • Importance Of Water Conservation In Farming
  • Water Retention Structures to conserve Surface Runoff
  • Minimum Tillage Practices That Conserve Water In Farming
• Agroforestry
  • Characteristics of Agroforestry
  • Characteristics Of Agricultural Crops For Agroforestry
  • Advantages/importance Of Agroforestry
  • Disadvantages of Agroforestry

Soil Pollution Control

Def: Soil pollution - refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and reduces the soil quality.

• It occurs when the substances causing the pollution reduce the quality of the soil and convert the soil inhabitable for microorganisms and macro organisms living in the soil.
• Soil contamination or soil pollution can occur either because of human activities or because of natural processes.
• However, mostly it is due to human activities. The soil contamination can occur due to the presence of chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, nitrate, mercury, naphthalene, etc. in an excess amount.
  

Causes of Soil Pollution

• Soil pollution is a complex occurrence, and it can be triggered by a variety of things and activities, from the littering of cigarette butts to excess use of chemical fertilizers.
• Every cause is linked with another. It is quite difficult to pinpoint one particular cause. However, the leading causes are listed below.

1. Industrial Activity - Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem of soil pollution, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the earth. As a result, the industrial waste lingers on the soil surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use.
2. Agricultural Activities - The utilization of chemicals has gone up tremendously since technology has provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil.
3. Waste Disposal - While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every person excretes a certain amount of personal waste in the form of urine and feces. While much of it moves into the sewer system, there is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water.
4. Accidental Oil Spills - Oil leaks can happen during the storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel reduces the quality of soil and make it unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the groundwater through the soil and make the water undrinkable.
5. Acid Rain - Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mix up with the rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the essential nutrients found in the soil and change the structure of the soil.

Effects Of Soil Pollution

Soil influences almost all aspects of our daily lives. Sometimes we fail to understand it. As a result of this, we sometimes fail to understand the effect that soil pollution has on our daily lives. Polluted soil means stunted crops or even a toxic underground water table. Some major effects of soil pollution are:

• Effect on Health of Humans - Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences for our health. Crops and plants that are grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass it on to us. This could explain the sudden increase in small and terminal illnesses. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it.
• Effect on Growth of Plants - The ecological balance of any system is affected due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.
  
  The fertility of the soil slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for their native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life.
• Decreased Soil Fertility - The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables, which lack quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substances to cause serious health problems in people consuming them.
• Poisoning of the Underground Water Table - Soil pollution also leads to the poisoning of the underground water table. Since this water is stored beneath the layers of the soil, the toxins in the soil could easily percolate slowly and steadily into the water table.

Possible Solutions to Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is a complex problem that ought to be solved. It is essential that we all realize how important soil is to us.
The earlier we realize this, the better we will be able to solve the problem of soil pollution. It is a complex problem, and thus, it requires everyone, from an individual to the government, to work in complete unison. Listed below are a few things that could help in reducing soil pollution.

• Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers - Chemical fertilizers do more harm than good. While proper amounts could enhance the fertility of the soil, an excess of it actually poisons the soil. The excess of chemical fertilizers could pollute the soil in several ways. It could mess with the pH levels of the soil. It could also destroy the good microorganisms in the soil. Not only that, but the runoff from such soils also causes water pollution as well. Thus, using chemical fertilizers is like a double-edged sword.
• Reforestation and Afforestation Should Be Promoted - One of the major causes of soil pollution is soil erosion, which is caused due to deforestation.
  It is natural that, with an ever-growing population, humankind needs more and more space to expand their civilization. Often, it is achieved at the cost of the health of the soil.
  To prevent this from happening, reforestation of a deforested area should be promoted. Also, afforestation should be promoted and encouraged in the barren lands.
  The roots of the plants bind the soil particles together and even capture good microorganisms in the soil. It also ensures the maintenance of the underground water table.
• Recycle and Reuse Products - These steps not only reduce waste generation but also ensure that soil pollution is reduced. At present, plastic forms a significant portion of the generated waste. More often than not, this wastes are buried in landfills.
  In these landfills, these plastics and other materials decompose slowly and release toxic materials into the soil. These toxic substances are very harmful to the health of the soil and are a major source of soil pollution.
  By reusing and recycling things, we would ensure that lesser wastes are dumped in these landfills, and this, in turn, would reduce soil pollution.
• Promote Use of Natural Manure - Natural manure is one of the best sources of nutrients for the soil. It is harmless and completely organic. It adds essential nutrients to the soil and restores the health of the soil. It has no harmful by-products that could harm the soil or the environment in any way.
• Create awareness - In order to ensure that a problem like soil pollution is solved, it is essential that every individual must get involved. It is with their involvement that things can work out better. Awareness programs could be designed so that people understand soil pollution better. If people are aware, they will help, even subconsciously.

Safe Farming Practices That Prevent Soil Pollution

Different types of soil conservation methods ensure long-term usage of land and keep it productive for future generations. Let’s consider their benefits in regard to soil conservation.

• Conservation Tillage - The conservation tillage aims at addressing wind and water erosion by covering the earth with vegetation (either crops or their residues) and limiting the number of tilling operations. Another significant aspect is to choose the proper time for field operations, depending on the soil types. For example, clay ones are better to till after harvesting while other types are better to plow before seeding.
• Contour Farming - The soil conservation method proves efficient in slope territories and suggests planting species along the contour. Rows up and down the slope provoke soil erosion due to water currents while rows along the contour restrain it. An impact of terracing is similar: it also helps to conserve soil and reduce its degradation processes.
  
• Strip Cropping - In this case, farmers combine high-growing crops with low-growing ones for the sake of wind protection, like when corn grows in strips with forage crops. The strip cropping practice works even better when high-growing crops are intensified in the sides where winds blow most frequently. An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the low crops.
  
• Windbreaks - As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops from snow and winds planted in several rows. Depending on the number of rows, we can distinguish windbreaks properly (up to five rows) and shelterbelts (six and more).
  
• Crop Rotation - Crop rotation vs. mono-cropping farming suggests changing agro species instead of planting one and the same for many subsequent seasons.
  Farmers applying this soil conservation method reap numerous benefits. Crop rotation helps them improve the earth structure with diverse root systems, to mitigate pest establishments, and to add nitrogen to the land with legumes known as nitrogen-fixing plants.
• Cover Crops - This soil conservation technique is another way to avoid bare soils and additionally benefit from planting cover crops – secondary species – in-between growing cash crops for different reasons like to:
  1. produce forage and grazing material for cattle;
  2. provide green manure;
  3. assist in weed control;
  4. retain moisture;
  5. ensure a natural environment for microorganisms and minor animals;
  6. balance nitrogen concentration (either releasing or accumulating it with certain plants).
• Buffer Strips - These are trees and bushes on the banks of water bodies to prevent sediment, water wash offs. Their roots fix the soil to avoid slumping and erosion, canopies protect from excessive sunlight to water inhabitants and falling leaves are a source of organic matter and food of minor aquatic animals
  
• Integrated Pest Management - Pests are a great nuisance to agriculturalists and have been a major issue to tackle while chemicals poison nature leaking to water and the atmosphere. It is important to eliminate synthetic herbicides replacing them with organic ones or establishing biological enemies of pests whenever possible, rotating crop species to minimize increasing pest populations in the same field for years, and using alternative techniques in complex.

Benefits of Soil Conservation

Humankind in general and farmers in particular benefit from numerous advantages of soil conservation. This agricultural practice contributes to sustainability in a number of ways:

• Boosts earth quality and productivity. Maintaining the natural environment for earth-dwelling organism’s increases fertility and reduces the necessity of chemical fertilizing, thus boosting yields and saving costs at the same time.
• Mitigates erosion. Soil conservation methods to reduce erosion and depletion help agriculturalists to avoid the expansion of new lands when territories become infertile.
• Promotes water infiltration and increases its storage. The soil conservation technique of minimum tillage vs. conventional plowing affects soil moisture by reducing cracking and evaporation as well as rising the infiltration rate.
• Aids air and water purification. The importance of soil conservation relates to water supplies, and the earth functions as a natural filter to purify water. Soil conservation mitigates the concentration of pollutants and sediments. In its turn, water is the basic condition to dissolve nutrients for plants. Soil carbon sequestration and reduced chemical applications contribute to air purity, too.
• Gives food and shelter for wildlife. Land with growing vegetation is a living environment for animals; it is not only the source for nourishment but their home as well.
  “When the well is dry, we know the worth of water.”
  – Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard’s Almanack for 1733

Water Conservation Methods In Farming

• Mulch - We cannot overemphasize the importance of mulching. Mulch is something laid on the surface of the soil to protect the soil from the air, water and the sun.
  To mulch, first weed the soil then spread a thick layer of organic mulch on the soil. Examples of organic mulches are:
  
  1. Chopped leaves
  2. Straw
  3. Grass clippings
  4. Wood chips
  5. Shredded bark
  6. Pine needles
     Mulching helps save time and labour as it discourages weeds and pests and conserve water through reduced evaporation.
     
• Irrigate early morning or dusk - At the hottest and driest time of the year it is most efficient to water your crops in the morning or in the evening. This avoids water loss from evapotranspiration (water evaporating from the land and leaves of plants). Evaporation happens most in the midday sun.
  
• Don’t over-water - It’s a common misconception that plants would be happy with lots of water all of the time. But often farmers are over-watering crops unnecessarily. Save water! Plants will only take what they need and then all that extra water goes to waste through evaporation, run-off or infiltration.
  
• Check for leaks and damage - If you’ve already invested in an irrigation system, make sure you’re not losing any water before it reaches the crops. Irrigation pipes and equipment can become damaged or blocked which causes leaks. Thoroughly check your equipment for leaks and repair them so that all the water you have gets to the crops.
  
• Drip Irrigation - Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to a plant’s roots, reducing the evaporation that happens with spray watering systems. Timers can be used to schedule watering for the cooler parts of the day, further reducing water loss.

Importance Of Water Conservation In Farming

• It minimizes the effects of drought and water shortages. By reducing the amount of water we use, we can better protect against future drought years.
• It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources.
• It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources.

Water Retention Structures To Conserve Surface Runoff

Water Retention Structures means a structure designed to retain a large volume of water
There are various methods of water retention to conserve surface runoff, this include:

• Water retention Ditches - Ditches are man-made waterbodies that are used mainly to drain the land.
  
• Earth Basins - is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single point
  
• Water retention pits – is an artificial pond with vegetation around the perimeter and a permanent pool of water in its design.
  

Minimum Tillage Practices That Conserve Water In Farming

Tillage practices refer to the tillage operations carried out between the harvest and following sowing/cultivation operation. Tillage, crop rotation and soil cover are practices related to pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, soil compaction etc. Some of the minimum tillage practices include:

• Use of herbicides;
• Uprooting/slashing;
• Use of cash crops;
• Limiting cultivation to the point planting;
• Proper timing of cultivation;
• Mulching

There are other different tillage practices distinguished are:

• Conservation tillage
• Conventional tillage
• Zero tillage

Conservation tillage can include the following systems:

• Strip tillage or zonal tillage refers to a system where strips 5 to 20 cm in width are prepared to receive the seed whilst the soil along the intervening bands is not disturbed and remains covered with residues. The system causes more soil disturbance and provides less cover along the rows than zero tillage.
• Tined tillage or vertical tillage refers to a system where the arable land is prepared with equipment which does not invert the soil and which cause little compaction. For this reason, the surface normally remains with a good cover of residues on the surface.
• Ridge tillage is a system of ridges and furrows. The ridges may be narrow or wide and the furrows can be parallel to the contour lines or constructed with a slight slope, depending on whether the objective is to conserve moisture or to drain excess moisture. The ridges can be semi-permanent or be constructed each year which will govern the amount of residue material that remains on the surface.

Conventional tillage

Refers to the arable land treated by conventional tillage which involves inversion of the soil, normally with a moldboard or a disc plough as the primary tillage operation, followed by secondary tillage with a disc harrow.

Zero tillage

Refers to the arable land on which no tillage is applied between harvest and sowing. Zero tillage is a minimum tillage practice in which the crop is sown directly into soil not tilled since the harvest of the previous crop. Weed control is achieved by the use of herbicides and/or appropriate mulching and stubble is retained for erosion control.

Agroforestry

It’s the cultivation and use of trees and shrubs with crops and livestock in agricultural systems.

Characteristics of Agroforestry

While selecting tree species for agroforestry systems, the following desirable characteristics should be taken into consideration. Though all desirable characters are not found in a single species, but their multiple uses are taken care of.

1. Tree species selected should not interfere with soil moisture
   
   • Tree species selected for agroforestry should have very less water requirement
   • Should not compete with main agricultural crops for water.
   • Tree species should be deep tap rooted so that they can draw water from deep strata of the soil.
2. Tree species should not compete for plant nutrients
   
   • Tree species should not utilize more plant nutrients
   • They should help in building soil fertility,
   • Leguminous tree species which fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots should be prefered.
   • The root system and root growth characteristics should ideally result in to exploration of soil layers that are different to those being trapped by agricultural crops.
3. Tree species should not compete for sunlight
   
   • Tree species should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops.
   • Tree species should be light branching in their habit.
   • Trees permit the penetration of light into the ground and promote better crop, pasture growth and yield.
   • Tree species can withstand pruning operation if it possess dense canopy.
4. Tree species should have high survival rate and easy establishment
   
   • Trees species should have high survival percentage,
   • Leave little or no gaps after transplanting.
   • Hardy tree species are easy to establish.
   • They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily.
   • Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after transplanting.
5. Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy management
   
   • Tree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,
   • Rapid growth, especially in the early years,
   • Tree should have short rotation (the period between planting and final harvesting)
   • Fast growing species
6. Tree species should have wider adaptability
   
   • A tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability.
7. Tree species should have high palatability as a fodder
   
   • Most of the Indian farmer’s rear livestock separately and cut and carry method of fodder production is quite prevalent.
   • Therefore, in agroforestry, farmer must select those tree species which are palatable to livestock and had a high digestibility.
8. Tree species should have shelter conferring and soil stabilization attributes
   
   • Some tree species, because of their inherent growth habit and adaptability, are especially helpful in providing protection for soils, crops and livestock.
9. Tree species should have capability to withstand management practices
   
   • Many agroforestry systems demand extensive pruning and lopping of the trees in order to maximize production. In such cases, the trees must be able to withstand such treatment without drastically restricting growth rate.
10. Tree species should have nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation attributes
    
    • Within an agroforestry system, trees can play an important role in recycling nutrients, leached down through the soil profile and minerals released from weathering parent material such as rocks and sediments.
    • These nutrients are used in the growth and development of the tree, many returning to the top-soil in form of dead leaves, twigs, flowers and seeds which slowly decompose on the surface, or are eaten by animals.
    • Although all trees play some role in maintaining the nutrient status of the soil through recycling.
    • Deciduous trees drop most of their leaves in autumn leaving a thick mat of leaves on the ground, whereas most evergreen species maintain some level of litter fall throughout the year.
    • Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots.
    • The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant.
    • The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing the nitrogen status of the soil.
11. Tree species should have thin bark
    
    • Species selected for agroforestry combinations should not shed its bark regularly but it should retain for longer period as bark shedding creates unhygienic conditions for under-ground crop.
12. Tree species should be free from chemical exudations
    
    • The species selected for agroforestry combination must be free from chemicals as these chemicals affect the growth of under-ground crops.
13. Tree species should have easily decomposable leaves
    
    • The suitable tree species for agroforestry will be that one in which fallen leaves decompose with fast rate.
    • The leaves of most of the legume tree species are small in size, decompose quickly and easily, and add a large quantity of organic matter and nutrients to the soil.
    • Tree species having broad leaves such as teak, mango and banyan should not be preferred for agroforestry system.
    • They contain more fibre matter and also require longer time for decomposition. Further, broad leaves when fall on the tender crop plants, block their photosynthetic activities.
14. Tree species should have their multiple uses
    
    • The selected tree species should have multiple uses.
    • The tree should yield more than one of the main produce like fuelwood, leaf fodder, edible fruit, edible flower and fibre.
15. Tree species should have high yield potential
    
    • High yield potential is the most important criterion of selection of tree species for agroforestry systems as the main aim is to obtain overall more output per unit area. Care should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source.

Suitable tree species for agroforestry 

• Leucaena leucocephala
• Gravillea robusta
• Calliandra catothrysus
• Mangifera indica
• Sesbania sesban
• Lantana camara
• Cajanus cajan

Characteristics Of Agricultural Crops For Agroforestry

1. Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing.
2. They should be at least partially tolerant to shade.
3. Most of them should belong to Leguminous family.
4. They should respond well to high density tree planting.
5. They should bear some adverse conditions, like water stress and/or excess of watering;
6. Crops should return adequate organic matter to soil through their fallen leaves, root system, stumps, etc.
7. Crops should appropriately be fitted in intensive or multiple cropping system.

Advantages/importance Of Agroforestry

1. Saves labour since some operations can be done at once for both plants and trees
2. Gives higher combined yield
3. Provide wide variety of agricultural produce
4. Reduces the risks of total failure
5. Crops benefit from nitrogen fixing trees.
6. Trees help in holding the soil firmly
7. Some trees act as livestock fodder.
8. Provides a wider variety of agricultural produce.

Disadvantages of Agroforestry

1. Mechanization is difficult.
2. Use of pesticides and fertilizer may be difficult.
3. Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different trees

• Introduction to Business Studies
  
  • Components of Business Studies
  • Importance Of Business Studies
  • Career Opportunities In The Field Of Business Studies
• Money
  • Uses Of Money In Daily Life
  • Themes And Symbols In The Kenyan Currency
• Personal Goals
  • General Goal Setting Tips
  • Starting to Set Personal Goals
• Talents and Abilities
  • Ways Of Nurturing Talents
  • Personal Talents and Abilities
  • Ethical Issues Related To Use Of Talents And Abilities In Business
  • Importance Of Nurturing Talents And Abilities

Introduction to Business Studies

• Business: Any activity that is carried out by an individual or an organization concerning provision of goods and services with a view to making profit.
• Business studies: Is the study/examination of the business activities in society. These activities are related to the production of goods and provision of services.
  
  • It can also be defined as the study of activities that are carried out in and around production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Components of Business Studies

Business studies consist of the following disciplines

1. Commerce
2. Accounting
3. Economics
4. Office practice
5. Entrepreneurship

• Commerce
  This is the study of trade and aids to trade. Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services or money. Aids to trade are human activities (services) that assist trade to take place.
• Economics
  This is the study of how human beings strive to satisfy their endless wants using the available scarce resources.
• Accounting
  This refers to a systematic way of recording business activities which all used for decision making.
• Office practice
  This refers to all activities that are carried out in an office e.g. communication, filling, clerical work, reproduction of documents etc.
• Entrepreneurship
  This is the study of activities involved in the process of identifying a business opportunity and acquiring the necessary resources to start and run a business. The person who carries out these activities is referred to as an entrepreneur.

Importance Of Business Studies

Some of the benefits of learning business studies include:

1. Assists the learners/members of the society to acquire knowledge and awareness of business terminologies which are necessary when discussing business issues such as profit and loss.
2. Assists the individuals in appreciating the role of business in society/in provision of goods and services.
3. It enables the learners to acquire basic knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the development of self and the nation by starting and operating business.
4. Equips the members of society with knowledge and skills necessary to start and run a business comfortably.
5. Makes the members of society to appreciate the need for good business management practices
6. Assists individual to acquire self-discipline and positive attitude towards work
7. Equips individual with abilities to promote co-operation in society through trade
8. Enables the individual to understand the role of government in business activities
9. Equips individuals with abilities to understand the role of communication and information technology in modern business management
10. Helps the individuals to develop positive attitudes towards the environment
11. Equips the individual with knowledge and skills required to evaluate business performance
12. It helps individual to develop various intellectual abilities such as inquiry, critical thinking, analysis, interpretation, rational judgement, innovation and creativity.
13. It enables learners to acquire skills for wise buying and selling.
14. It creates a firm foundation for further education and training in business and other related fields.
15. It enables one to understand and appreciate the basic economic issues that affect the society such as increase in prices of goods and services.

Career Opportunities In The Field Of Business Studies

• Auditor.
• Logistics analyst.
• Human resources specialist.
• Accountant.
• Operations analyst.
• Marketing manager.
• Financial advisor.
• Financial analyst
• Entrepreneur

Money

• whatever serves society in four functions: as a medium of exchange, a store of value, a unit of account, and a standard of deferred payment.
• Money is power if you utilize it with knowledge. Money is dangerous if you are greedy for money and utilize it without thought. – Vijay Sharma

Uses Of Money In Daily Life

• First, money serves as a medium of exchange, which means that money acts as an intermediary between the buyer and the seller. Instead of exchanging accounting services for shoes, the accountant now exchanges accounting services for money. This money is then used to buy shoes. To serve as a medium of exchange, money must be very widely accepted as a method of payment in the markets for goods, labor, and financial capital.
• Second, money must serve as a store of value. In a barter system, we saw the example of the shoemaker trading shoes for accounting services. But she risks having her shoes go out of style, especially if she keeps them in a warehouse for future use—their value will decrease with each season. Shoes are not a good store of value. Holding money is a much easier way of storing value. You know that you do not need to spend it immediately because it will still hold its value the next day, or the next year. This function of money does not require that money is a perfect store of value. In an economy with inflation, money loses some buying power each year, but it remains money.
• Third, money serves as a unit of account, which means that it is the ruler by which other values are measured.
• Money fulfills your personal and family needs and desires:
  Money has the power to buy goods and services. With money, a person can fulfill his daily living needs and desires. With money, you can buy food, clothes, a home, a car, holiday tour packages, and gifts. With money, you can buy a high-speed internet connection and good quality equipment for work and business.

Key security features of the Kenyan Currency

Themes And Symbols In The Kenyan Currency

Personal Goals

• Goals are defined as the desired states that people seek to obtain, maintain, or avoid. Personal goals are goals related to your work, relationship, finances, and other aspects of life.

There are three types of goals- process, performance, and outcome goals.

• Process goals are specific actions or ‘processes’ of performing. For example, aiming to study for 2 hours after dinner every day. Process goals are 100% controllable by the individual.
• Performance goals are based on personal standard. For example, aiming to achieve a 3.5 GPA. Personal goals are mostly controllable.
• Outcome goals are based on winning. For a college student, this could look like landing a job in your field or landing job at a particular place of employment you wanted. Outcome goals are very difficult to control because of other outside influences.

Process, performance, and outcome goals have a linear relationship. This is important because if you achieve your process goals, you give yourself a good chance to achieve your performance goals. Similarly, when you achieve your performance goals, you have a better chance of achieving your outcome goal.

General Goal Setting Tips

• set both short- and long-term goals
• set SMART goals
• set goals that motivate you
• write your goals down and put them in a place you can see
• adjust your goals as necessary
• Recognize and reward yourself when you meet a goal

Set all three types of goals- process, performance, and outcome – but focus on executing your smaller process goals to give you the best chance for success!

• specific – highly detailed statement on what you want to accomplish (use who, what, where, how etc.)
• Measurable- how will you demonstrate and evaluate how your goal has been met?
• Attainable- they can be achieved by your own hard work and dedication- make sure your goals are within your ability to achieve
• Relevant- how do your goals align with your objectives?
• Time based- set 1 or more target dates- these are the “by whens” to guide your goal to successful and timely completion (include deadlines, frequency and dates)

Be Clear About Your Purpose in Life

First, be clear about your purpose in life. Having a clear vision in life gives you direction. You know where you are coming from and where you are going. The destination is definite, and this gives you a foundation for your goal setting.

Why These Goals?

Having a foundation for goal setting gives you a destination. The next step is to look at the goals you have in mind and ask yourself why these goals in specific. Let’s say you want to get from Nairobi to Mombasa. You can walk, run, hire a taxi, take a bus, take a train or take a flight.
In the end, you will have to choose one means of transport to get you to Mombasa. If you take a bus, ask yourself why the bus? Why not walk or take a flight? If you can answer the why in your goals. And hopefully, your answer will not be because everyone is doing it, then you are on the right path.

Do The Goals Motivate You?

Do you get motivated when you look at your goals? Remember your why. If the answer to your why is because everyone is doing it, the motivation is going to low. When challenges set in and everyone gives up, you will give up with them or give up when others are still on the move.
Set goals that motivate you. Motivation has to come from the heart. Remember, this is a journey. It is not a destination in itself. Your inner drive will keep you moving when the going gets tough.

You Goals Must Be Specific To You

Your goals have to be specific to you. Do not set random goals just because that is what is expected from you. Let’s say you have a target to meet at the end of the month set by your company. The targets are not specific to you. In most cases, they are distinct to your department but general to you and your colleagues.
A successful person will take the targets set and personalize them. What is it you want to achieve at the end of the month as far as the goals set for your team are concerned? Do you want to meet the exceptions, or do you want to exceed them? Set your weekly and daily goals to reflect what you want to achieve as an individual.

Goals Have To Be Relevant To Your Higher Purpose In Life

Your goals must be relevant to your higher purpose in life. If not, you will deviate from your purpose or vision. Set goals to reflect, and feed your cause. The danger in working on plans that don’t align with your purpose or mission, you end up working for other people.

Proverbs 16:3 New International Version (NIV)

Commit to the Lord whatever you do, and he will establish your plans.

Starting to Set Personal Goals

You set your goals on a number of levels:

• First you create your "big picture" of what you want to do with your life (or over, say, the next 10 years), and identify the large-scale goals that you want to achieve.
• Then, you break these down into the smaller and smaller targets that you must hit to reach your lifetime goals.
• Finally, once you have your plan, you start working on it to achieve these goals.

This is why we start the process of setting goals by looking at your lifetime goals. Then, we work down to the things that you can do in, say, the next five years, then next year, next month, next week, and today, to start moving towards them.

Step 1: Setting Lifetime Goals

The first step in setting personal goals is to consider what you want to achieve in your lifetime (or at least, by a significant and distant age in the future). Setting lifetime goals gives you the overall perspective that shapes all other aspects of your decision making.
To give a broad, balanced coverage of all important areas in your life, try to set goals in some of the following categories (or in other categories of your own, where these are important to you):

• Career – What level do you want to reach in your career, or what do you want to achieve?
• Financial – How much do you want to earn, by what stage? How is this related to your career goals?
• Education – Is there any knowledge you want to acquire in particular? What information and skills will you need to have in order to achieve other goals?
• Family – Do you want to be a parent? If so, how are you going to be a good parent? How do you want to be seen by a partner or by members of your extended family?
• Artistic – Do you want to achieve any artistic goals?
• Attitude – Is any part of your mindset holding you back? Is there any part of the way that you behave that upsets you? (If so, set a goal to improve your behavior or find a solution to the problem.)
• Physical – Are there any athletic goals that you want to achieve, or do you want good health deep into old age? What steps are you going to take to achieve this?
• Pleasure – How do you want to enjoy yourself? (You should ensure that some of your life is for you!)
• Public Service – Do you want to make the world a better place? If so, how?

Spend some time brainstorming these things, and then select one or more goals in each category that best reflect what you want to do. Then consider trimming again so that you have a small number of really significant goals that you can focus on.

Talents and Abilities

For many people, the words “talent” and “ability” are interchangeable. Understanding the difference between them can make all the difference in how we live and work. Here at Pro/spur, one of the first lessons we share with our players is recognizing their talent vs. their ability. So what is the difference?

Talent is what you’ve been given.

Ability is how you grow the talent you’ve been given.

Right now, there are more than 8,000 pro players in Minor League baseball. Do you know how many of those players have enough talent alone to make it to the Big Leagues and stay there? The answer: not that many.

Ways Of Nurturing Talents

Create an Open Culture

Firms are a product of multiple people’s contributions. Each worker should feel like their words have weight and that their input is valued.
Everything starts with the workplace culture, which gives new starters the confidence to stick around and keeps more experienced personnel grounded and loyal. Encourage employees to speak up if they have any concerns or thoughtful ideas.

Develop Mentoring Schemes

Mentoring is an enormous part of nurturing talent. However, finesse is required in how your company approaches it. Vague instances of encouragement aren’t enough to keep workers motivated and performing well.

Introduce Automation

Workers with many responsibilities can soon become overwhelmed. The most overworked staff members may find little time to focus on their own professional development.
Automation can ease these burdens somewhat. These technologies can assume many of the admin tasks a worker needs to do. Signing paperwork, scheduling updates, responses to routine emails – these are all tasks automation can oversee instead of the employee. Work-related stress can be reduced as a result.

Offer Flexibility

Nurturing talent can’t be done under overly rigid work practices. Employees need to grow both personally and professionally and to do so effectively, they need a level of control.

Keep Innovating

Your business needs to aspire to be greater constantly. Only then can you expect your workers to adopt a similar attitude.
Of course, your business may be more concerned about surviving rather than thriving these days. Irrespective of your circumstances or the economic conditions you’re facing, your company must keep pushing to innovate and excel within its industry.

Personal Talents and Abilities

• Communication.
• Interpersonal skills.
• Leadership.
• Problem-solving.
• Time management.
• Adaptability.
• Critical thinking.
• Organization.

Five kinds of talent categories:

• Self-conceptual talents – like self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, and self-confidence.
• Social talents – like social awareness, communication, relationship management, collaboration, and influence.
• General talents – like language skills, mathematical abilities, reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and learning abilities.
• Specific expertise – like strategic thinking, arts, writing, research, sports, design, storytelling, and kinesthetic abilities.
• Fun talents – any cool talents such as exceptional taste, ventriloquism (ability to make your voice appear from somewhere else or with delay), and hypermobility, to name a few.

Ethical Issues Related To Use Of Talents And Abilities In Business

Ethical issues in business occur when a decision, activity or scenario conflicts with the organization’s or society's ethical standards. Both organizations and individuals can become involved in ethical issues since others may question their actions from a moral viewpoint.

1. Discrimination and harassment
   Two of the most significant ethical issues that HR professionals and managers face are discrimination and harassment. The consequences of discrimination and harassment in the workplace can negatively impact the finances and reputation of the organization. Many countries have anti-discrimination laws to protect employees from unfair treatment. Some anti-discrimination areas include:
   
   • Age: Organizations and internal policies cannot discriminate against employees who are older.
   • Disability: To prevent disability discrimination, it's important to accommodate and provide equal treatment for employees with mental or physical disabilities.
   • Equal pay: Equal pay focuses on ensuring that all employees receive equal compensation for similar work, regardless of religion, gender or race.
   • Pregnancy: Pregnant employees have a right not to be discriminated against on account of their pregnancy.
   • Race: Employees should receive equal treatment, regardless of ethnicity or race.
   • Religion: Employees' religious beliefs should not affect how anyone within the organization treats them.
   • Sex and gender: An employee's sex and gender identity should not influence their treatment while working at an organization.
2. Ethics in accounting practices
   Laws require organizations to maintain accurate bookkeeping practices. Unethical accounting practices are a serious issue, especially for publicly traded companies. The legislation specifies financial report requirements aimed at protecting shareholders and consumers. All organizations have to keep accurate financial records and pay taxes to attract investment and business partners regardless of the size of the company.
3. Nepotism or favoritism
   As a hiring manager or HR professional, you may want to employ an acquaintance or family member because of your connection to them. Even if you adhere to recruitment policies to ensure a fair process, some employees may still consider this as nepotism or favoritism. Favoritism occurs when managers treat some employees better than others for no professional reason. This can reduce productivity and job satisfaction in other employees, which may negatively impact the entire organization.
4. Workplace health and safety
   All employees have a right to a safe working environment and work conditions.

Importance Of Nurturing Talents And Abilities

Nurturing internal talent can benefit your business in many ways:

Facilitate success. Nurturing the talent you already have allows you to facilitate opportunities for cross-training, career development and networking.

Create a culture of innovation and empowerment. Nurturing your existing talent creates a culture of innovation and empowerment, in which employees know they are valued and they are motivated to strive for excellence

Open leadership opportunities. Nurturing the talent of your teams enables you to foster a culture in which leadership opportunities abound.

• Meaning Of State, Kingdom And Empire
  • The Ancient Egypt
  • The Great Zimbabwe
  • The Kingdom of Kongo
  • Contributions Of Early African Civilisation To The Modern World
• Social Organisation Of Selected African Communities Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Ogiek Community Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Zulu Community Up To 1900
  • Social Organisation Of The Asante Community Up To 1900
• Human Diversity And Inclusion
  • Personality Attributes Which Make Individuals Different From Others
  • Peace and Conflict Resolution 

Meaning Of State, Kingdom And Empire

State
A territory is considered as an organised political community under one government
Empire
An extensive group of semi autonomous states ruled by one ruler
Kingdom
A state or territory ruled by a king or queen

The Ancient Egypt

Factors that led to growth of Ancient Egypt Civilization

1. Presence of river nile
   It the annual flood of river nile and the use of shadoof method of irrigation boosted agriculture
2. Early technology
   It ushered in the bronze stage where copper and tin were used to make simple tools such as chisels and needles
   Artisans also made pots for storage and cookery purposes using potter’s wheel
3. Population
   High population in Ancient Egypt provided ready manpower and market
4. Strong military and leadership
   They ensured growth of the kingdom through conquests and assimilation of conquered neighbours into the empire
5. Use of hieroglyphic
   The formal writing helped keep reliable and accurate records in religion, government and history
6. Use of the calendar
   Tracking of days and monitoring events such as annual flooding of the nile, planting and harvesting period
7. Specialised workers
   They worked in various institutions. They helped in keeping recods in the Egyptian empire.
   They recorded harvest, finances and history

The Great Zimbabwe

Great Zimbabwe was a city near Masvingo in the central part of the modern day Zimabwe, Mozambique and Botstwana.
It existed between 1000BC to 1500BC
Zimbabwe is a shone word meaning “stone houses”
Great Zimbabwe had a centralized government with hereditary kings. This system of government led to the rise and growth of the kingdom

Factors that led to the growth of the Great Zimbabwe civilization

1. Strong agricultural economy
2. Existence of several minerals deposits such as gold, copper
3. Trade
4. Strong leadership
5. Acquisition of firearms in exchange of goods
6. Strong army
7. Religious beliefs brought them together

The Kingdom Of Kongo

Factors that led to the growth of kingdom of Kongo

1. Strategic location of the kingdom
2. Favourable climate and the kingdom its closeness to congo river which supported agriculture throughout the year
3. Arrival of Portuguese
4. Religion
5. Trade
6. Christianity

Locating ancient kingdoms on a map of Africa

Pupil’s activity
Page 77-78

Contributions Of Early African Civilisation To The Modern World

• Modern civilisation owes ts current development to the ancient civilization.
• Ancient Egypt was the beginning of building designs and construction of permanent buildings we have today.
• The hieroglyphics form of writing in Egypt used to keep records developed into the modern writing and education
• The knowledge of planning and prediction of seasons based on calendar started in the early civilisation. Today it is has been developed further to include weather forecasting in predicting accurate changes.
• The industrial development in the ancient kingdoms was based on simple skill. Copper and tin were used in ancient Egypt to make items. Today most of the industries use metals and alloys to make construction and infrastructural equipment.
• The modern irrigation technology barrows a lot from the ancient irrigation techniques such as shadoof. This has been applied in the agricultural sector
• Tools such as jembes/hoes used in farming today were developed in the ancient civilisation
• The political structure of modern government resembles the early civilisation goverment

Social Organisation Of Selected African Communities Up To 1900

Locating areas by the Ogiek, Zulu and Asante communities in Africa

PUPILS’ ACTIVITY
PAGE 81

Social Organisation Of The Ogiek Community Up To 1900

Ogiek are southern nilotic speakers
Most of them live in the county of nakuru, mau and mt elgon forests

• Family was the basic unit among the ogiek community
• The lineage was responsible for enforcing traditional law and order
• Father was head of the family
• The ogiek were polygamous
• There was division of labour among the ogiek community
  Men provide for the family needs, provide leadership and security
  Women worked in homestead, bear children and do household chores
  Children helped with household chores, cultivating in farms and artisanship
• The ogiek were a patriarchal society- men owned property and passed it to their sons
• The ogiek believed in one supreme being called Tororet
• They believed also in the existence of ancestral spirits called Oiik
• They had diviners who could foretell the future using supernatural powers
• Both boys and girls were initiated
  Boys ceremony was called tumdo op went
  Girls ceremony was called tumbo op tiipik
• Intiated boys of the same age group sets known as ipinda
• The ogiek used plants and herbs from forest for treating diseases

Social Organisation Of The Zulu Community Up To 1900

Zulu are Ngni people, bantu speaking
They occupy Kwazulu natal province in South africa
In the Ngumi languages izulu means heaven or weather
The zulu clans referred to as the isizwe
The zulu society was organised into parilineal sibs. The sibs were further divide into lineages which were composed of descendants of a common ancestor
Most households comprised extended families who lived in one household called kraal
Men inherited everything. Inheritance was patrilineal
The zulu people were polygamous. Men married many wives and lived with them with the extended family in the kraal.
Men paid dowry in terms of cows and gifts during the weeding day umabo
The zulu community believed in Umhlanga or reeds dance ceremony
Beadwork was a prominent wttire that worn at the Umahlanga
Beadworks was a sign of communication
It also symbolised wealth status of a person
Zulu believed in one God called uNkulunkulu
The controlled day to day human life of the Zulu community
The zulu had traditional mediceine men who treated the sick

Social Organisation Of The Asante Community Up To 1900

Asante are Akan speaking people
They live in the central part of the Modern day Ghana
Are organsised into clans whch is headed by a chief
Each clan speaks its own dialect of the Aken language
They believe in one supreme creator called Nyame
Ancestors were believed to connect people to Nyame
Asante empire leader was called Asatehene
He also acted as a spiritual leader
Omamhene and chiefs were all religious leaders who presided over religious ceremonies
Golden stool was th symbol of national unity in the Aasnte empire
It symboised ones and authority from the Asantehene
It was based in Kumasi, the capital of Asant empire
Odwira festival was an annual ceremony
They believed in the spirits of the departed rulers
Asante were socially stratified into 5 main divions
1^st division – king and those close to the king
- Lived in the capital of Kumasi
- Were wealthy and lived in luxury
2^nd division – consisted of the chiefs and top officials who assisted the king in enforcing law and order
3^rd division – those who had acquired a lot of wealth hence respect in the society
4^th division – comprised of ordinary farmers, traders and fishermen
5^th division – the lowest class was for the slaves
Asante families were extebded and matrilineal – mother’s brother was the legal guardian of her children
Asante were experts in form of decoration, logos, arts, sculture and pottery
These were known as Adinkra symbols

Comparing the social organisation of thr Ogiek, Zulu, and Asante community up to 1900

Human Diversity And Inclusion

Personality Attributes Which Make Individuals Different From Others

Personality attributes are qualities or characteristics that differentiate the character, action and attitude of a person from one another

Desirable and undesirable personality attributes in a multicultural society

Peace and Conflict Resolution

Peace
A state of calmness when there is no war
Conflict resolution
This is the process or act of solving or settling a disagreement.

Peace and conflict for personal well being

• Weather
  • Elements Of Weather
• Factors to Consider when Siting a Weather Station
  • Constructing Selected Instruments For Measuring Elements Of Weather
  • Historical Information

Weather

Weather is the daily atmospheric conditions of a place at a particular time.

Elements Of Weather

1. Temperature
   
   • Measure or degree of hotness or coldness of a place
2. Humidity
   
   • The amount of water vapour or moisture in the atmosphere
3. Precipitation
   
   • All forms of moisture which fall from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface
   • Rainfall is a form of precipitation formed from clouds that in form of water droplets
4. Atmospheric pressure
5. Wind
   • Moving air on the surface of the earth
6. Sunshine
   • Direct rays of sunlight on the surface of the earth
7. Cloud cover
   • Mass of tiny droplets of water or ice formed through condensation

Analysis and interpretation of weather conditions

Diurnal/daily Temperature range
-Difference between the maximum and minimum temperature for any one day.

Mean Daily Temperature
-Average of the maximum and the minimum daily temperatures.

Mean Monthly temperature
-Sum of mean daily temperatures in a month divided by the number of days in that month.

Mean Monthly minimum Temperature
-Sum of daily minimum temperatures divided by the number of days in that month.

Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
-Sum of daily maximum temperatures divided by the number of days in that month.

Mean Annual Temperature
-Sum of mean monthly temperatures divided by 12.

Mean Annual Temperature Range
-Difference between the highest and the lowest mean monthly temperatures in a year.

Monthly Rainfall Total
-Sum of rainfall recorded in a month.

Annual Rainfall Total
-Sum of monthly rainfall totals for 12 months.

Mean Monthly Rainfall
-Sum of rainfall totals for a particular month over several years divided by the number of the years of observation.

Mean Annual Rainfall
-Sum of mean monthly rainfall for 12 months of the year.

Factors To Consider When Siting A Weather Station

Weather Station

• A place where observation, measuring and recording of weather elements is done
  

Factors to Be Taken Into Account When Sitting a Weather Station

1. Open space
   
   • An open place where there is little obstruction of weather elements.
2. Accessible place
   
   • Accessible place so that recording can be done easily.
3. Gently sloping land
   
   • A fairly level or gently sloping ground (5◦) so that it’s easy to position weather instruments.
4. Security
   
   • The place should have security
5. The place should provide a wide view of the surrounding landscape and the sky.
6. The site should be free from flooding.

Constructing Selected Instruments For Measuring Elements Of Weather

Instruments for Measuring Elements of Weather

1. Thermometer- measures temperature
2. Hygrometer- measures humidity
3. Rain gauge-measures rainfall
4. Barometer-measures air pressure
5. Sunshine recorder-measures sunshine duration and intensity
6. Wind vane –measures wind direction
7. Anemometer-measures wind speed

1. Constructing a wind stock
   PUPIL’S ACTIVITY
   PAGE 52
   Materials needed
   1. A paper cup
   2. Clay and plasticine
   3. A pin
   4. Drinking straw
   5. Marker pen
   6. A white circular cardboard
   7. Square and triangular paper cuttings
   8. A pencil with a rubber head
      
2. Constructing a rain gauge
   PUPIL’S ACTIVITY
   PAGE 53
   Materials needed
   1. A 2-litre plastic bottle
   2. Ruler
   3. A ballpoint pen
   4. Masking tape
   5. A scalpel or pair of scissors
      
3. Constructing a Windsock
   PUPIL’S ACTIVITY
   PAGE 53-54
   Materials needed
   1. Cylindrical bag
   2. String
   3. A scalpel
   4. Water paints
   5. An empty plastic fat/magarine tin
   6. Masking tape or cellotape
   7. A pole with a pointed end
   8. Painting brushes or chewed sticks
      

Significance of weather to human

1. Helps us to be aware of natural calamities related to weather before they occur so as to take precautionary measures.
2. Guiding tourists on when to visit national parks.
3. Helps farmers to plan their activities such as planting, harvesting, etc.
4. Ensures air and water transport is carried out safely.
5. Helps sporting people to plan their training and competition schedules.
6. Helps people to plan many other activities such as mining, electricity generation, holiday events, etc.
7. Helps fishing communities to plan their activities

Historical Information

Sources of historical information in the society

1. Monuments
2. Caves
3. Historical pictures
4. Folk songs
5. Old coins
6. Recorded folk stories
7. Archaeological sites
8. Textbooks
9. Articles
10. Myths
11. Artefacts,
12. Fossils

Primary and secondary sources of information

Primary source is historical information that are created during the time period studied or were created at a later age by participant in even being practised
Secondary source is historical information that interprets or analyses a historical phenomenon

Ways of preserving historical information

Significance of historical information in providing evidence of past accounts

• Maps And Mapwork
  • Position of Africa
  • Countries That Makes Up The Africa Continent
  • Locating Places And Features On A Map Using Latitudes And Longitudes
• Pictures, Plan And Maps
  • Types Of Maps

Maps And Mapwork

A map is a representation of the earth or part of it on a flat surface.

Position of Africa

• Africa lies between latitude 37ºN and 35ºS and on longitude 18ºW and 52ºE.
• Separated by water from all other continent except at the point where it joins Asia.
• Mostly Easterly point is called ras hafun(cape guardafui)
• Mostly westerly is cape verde
• Mostly northerly is cape bon
• Mostly southerly is cape agulhas
• Africa is connected to sinai peninsula by suez canal
• Separated from Spain by strait of gibraltar
• Separated from Arabia by strait of bab el-mandeb

Shape of Africa

The northern half is very wide while the southern is much narrower
At the cape guardafui extends outwards in the shape of a horn therefore the horn of Africa

Size of Africa

Africa is the second largest continent in the world
Has an area of about 30.3 million square kilometres (20% of the total land surface)
It measures 8000 km from north to south and 7400km from east to west
Other continents

1. Asia – 43608000km²
2. Africa – 30335000km²
3. North America – 25349000km²
4. South America – 17611000km²
5. Antarctica – 13340000km²
6. Europe – 10498000km²
7. Australia – 8923000km²

Countries That Makes Up The Africa Continent

Africa has the largest number of countries in the world making o total of 55 countries

1. Algeria 2381741km²
2. Angola 1246700km²
3. Benin 115773km²
4. Botswana 600372km²
5. Burkina faso 274200km²
6. Burundi 28490km²
7. Cameroon 475900km²
8. Cape verde 7275km²
9. Central africa republic 622984km²
10. Chad 1284000km²
11. Comoros 2117km²
12. Congo 34965km²
13. Cόte d’ ivoire 322463km²
14. Djibouti 23310km²
15. DR congo 2345409km²
16. Egypt 1101449km²
17. Equatorial guinea 28051km²
18. Eritrea 124320km²
19. Ethiopia 1221900km²
20. Gabon 267667km²
21. Gambia 11369km²
22. Ghana 238537km²
23. Guinea 245957km²
24. Guinea bisau 36125km²
25. Kenya 582648km²
26. Lesotho 30460km²
27. Liberia 111369km²
28. Libya 1775000km²
29. Madagascar 592900km²
30. Malawi 118484km²
31. Mali 1240192km²
32. Mauritania 1030700km²
33. Mauritius 2040km²
34. Morocco 724730km²
35. Mozambique 802000km²
36. Niger 1267000km²
37. Namibia 824295km²
38. Nigeria 923773km²
39. Rwanda 26338km²
40. Sӑo Tome & principe 964km²
41. Senegal 196192km²
42. Seychelles 453km²
43. Sierra leone 72325km²
44. Somalia 626541km²
45. South africa 1221037km²
46. South sudan 644329km²
47. Sudan 1886068km²
48. Eswatini 17368km²
49. Tanzania 947419km²
50. Togo 56785km²
51. Tunisia 164154km²
52. Uganda 236036km²
53. Western sahara 252120km²
54. Zambia 752618km²
55. Zimbabwe 390759km²

The largest country in Africa is Algeria while the smallest is Seychelles.
Offshore island also form part of Africa;

1. Seychelles
2. Sao Tome and principe
3. Mauritius
4. Comoros
5. Madagascar
6. Cape verde

Locating Places And Features On A Map Using Latitudes And Longitudes

• When giving the position of a place or features we with start with the latitude and then longitude
  Major latitudes and longitudes
• Major longitude is called prime meridian also called Greenwich meridian
• In Africa it passes through:
  
  1. Ghana(Accra)
  2. Algeria
  3. Burkina faso
  4. Mali
• All other longitudes are measured and named from prime meridian up to 180 ̊ on both sides
• Major latitude are 3 passing through Africa

1. Equator 0 ̊ - divides Africa into two parts
   It passes through;
   
   1. Gabon
   2. Congo
   3. DR congo
   4. Uganda
   5. Kenya
   6. Somalia
2. Tropic of cancer 23½ ̊ north of equator
   It passes through;
   1. Western sahara
   2. Mali
   3. Mauritania
   4. Algeria
   5. Libya
   6. Egypt
3. Tropic of capricorn 23½ ̊ south of equator
   It passes through:
   1. Namibia
   2. Botswana
   3. South africa
   4. Mozambique
   5. Madagascar

• Other important lines of latitude are far from africa are:
  
  1. Arctic circle 66½ ̊N
  2. Antarctic circle 66½S

Calculating the time of different places in the world using longitudes

• Rotation of the earth- This is movement of earth on its own axis
• Distance between longitudes is measured in degrees
• There are 360 meridians or longitudes
• One complete rotation is 360 ̊
• The direction of the rotation is from west to east i.e. anticlockwise direction.
• One complete rotation takes 24 hours
• All places found in the east of the Greenwich meridian will see sunrise first and therefore they are one hour ahead of those to the west

Effects of rotation of the earth

1. Differences in time along different longitudes
2. Occurrence of day and night

24hrs = 360 ̊
1hr = ?
360×1 ÷24 =15
Therefore 1hr =15 ̊ or 360 ̊ = (24×60)minutes=1440min
̊= 1440÷360 ×1=4min
I Hr the earth covers 15º and 1º it covers 4 minutes

Calculating time of places found to the east of Greenwich Meridian

Example 1
The time in Accra 0° is 7.00am.calculate time in bermbera 45°E
1hr =15°
? = 45° = 45÷15×1 =3hrs
So 3hrs is equivalent to 45°  then add 3hrs to 7.00am to get 10.00am
Example 2
Suppose the time at GWM is 12 noon what is the local time at Watamu 40°E?
Time gained=40×4=160min=2 hours 40min
Local time at Watamu is 12.00+2.40=14.40-1200=2.40pm.
Example 3
At Dar-es-Salaam 40°E time is 12pm what is the time at Ecuador 40°E?
40°+20°=60°
60×4=240min=4hours
Ecuador is behind in time =12.00-4=8 am.

NB

• When calculating time to the east of Greenwich meridian, we add the time difference to the local time.

Calculating time of places found to the west of Greenwich Meridian

• When calculating time to the west of Greenwich meridian we subtract the time difference to the local time
  Example 1
  A plane leaves off in New York, 74ºW at 7 am local time. What is the local time in Stockholm 18ºE

NB

• If the places are on the same side subtract the degrees to get the difference and add or subtract from the reference time depending on which side the place is.

Pictures, Plan And Maps

Types Of Maps

1. Topographical maps 
   This shows selected natural physical features on a small portion of a country.
2. Atlas map this is a collection of maps in one volume
3. Sketch map maps which are roughly drawn.

A good sketch map should have the following characteristics:

1. Neat and clear
2. Title
3. Frame
4. Key
5. Compass direction

Importance of maps in day to day lives

1. Sketch maps are used to summarise information for easy reference.
2. Used for locating other countries.
3. Used for comparing sizes of countries.
4. For locating climatic regions of different parts of the world.
5. Give information on distribution of geographical phenomena e.g. vegetation on the earth’s surface.
6. Help travellers to find their way.
7. Used to calculate distance of a certain place.
8. Used to locate physical features like landforms.

• Background To The Birth Of Jesus Christ
  • Prophecies About The Coming Of Jesus Christ
  • Fulfilment of the Old Testament prophecies about the coming of Jesus Christ
• The annunciation and the birth of John the Baptist
  • Relating the Birth of John the Baptist to the Coming of Jesus Christ
• The Birth And Childhood Of Jesus Christ
  • Events that took place during the annunciation and the birth of Jesus Christ
  • Events that took place during the Birth of Jesus Christ

Background To The Birth Of Jesus Christ

Prophecies About The Coming Of Jesus Christ

• The coming of Jesus Christ was predicted by many prophets such as Isaiah and Jeremiah.
• A prophecy is a prediction of what will happen in the future.
• It is declared by a prophet who is inspired by the spirit of God.
• Prophets communicate God’s message, condemns evils in the society, give hope to people, anoint kings and teach people the ways of God

Isaiah’s prophecy about the coming of Jesus Christ

Isaiah 9:6-7

Isaiah prophesied that

• The messiah shall be called
  
  1. Wonderful counsellor
  2. Mighty God
  3. Eternal father
  4. Prince of peace
  5.  
• The messiah shall sit upon the throne of David and shall rule with justice and righteousness forever

Jeremiah prophecy about the coming of Jesus Christ

Jeremiah 23:5-6

Jeremiah prophesied that

• The messiah would be a righteous king from the house of David
• The messiah shall execute justice and righteous in the land
• He shall guarantee security and safety in the land of Israel.
• He shall be called “the lord of righteousness”
• He would bring salvation upon Judah
• He would reign as a king
• He would rule wisely

Fulfilment of the Old Testament prophecies about the coming of Jesus Christ

Mathew 1:18-23, Jeremiah 23:5-6, Isaiah 9:6-7

The annunciation and the birth of John the Baptist

Luke 1:5-25

• To announce means to make known.
• The old testaments said that John the Baptist was to prepare the way for the Messiah.
• Angel Gabriel announced the birth of John the Baptist during the reign of king Herod.
• Angel Gabriel appeared to Zechariah, who was a priest in the temple.
• Both Zechariah and his wife Elizabeth were advanced in age and did not have children , Elizabeth was barren.
• Zechariah, the priest was burning incense at the temple when Angel Gabriel appeared to him
• The angel told him that his wife Elizabeth would bear him a son. His name would be John.
• The angel said the following about the child that would be born
  
  1. The child would bring joy and gladness to many
  2. He will be great before the Lord
  3. He will not drink wine or strong drink
  4. He will be filled with the Holy Spirit
  5. He will bring back many of the people of Israel to the lord their God
  6. He would be source of joy to his parents
  7. He will go ahead of the lord strong and mighty
  8. He will prepare people for the Lord
• Zechariah, due to his old age, could not believe the Angel’s message. The angel told him that he would be dump until all was fulfilled. His wife conceived after five months.

Relating the Birth of John the Baptist to the coming of Jesus Christ

Luke 3:16, John 1:29-30  

• Jesus was the son of God whom John the Baptist had come to prepare the way for.
• John the Baptist introduced Jesus as the lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world.
• John acknowledged Jesus as one before him
• Jesus was greater than John the Baptist

How Christians apply the message of John the Baptist

Skills that Christians need to avoid evils condemned by John the Baptist

1. Creative thinking
   
   • Enables one to have ideas on how to avoid evil
2. Critical thinking
   • Enables one to make an informed judgement not to commit sin
3. Decision making
   • Helps us to make moral decisions that are appropriate
4. Self esteem
   • Have a feeling of self worth
5. Assertiveness
   • Express one’s actions with confidence

Appreciating the fulfilment of the Old TESTAMENT Prophecies

Pupil’s activity

Page 86-87

The Birth And Childhood Of Jesus Christ

Events that took place during the annunciation and the birth of Jesus Christ

Luke 1:26-38

• An event is something that takes place and it is of importance.
• The annunciation of the birth of Jesus Christ was important
• During the sixth month of Elizabeth’s pregnancy . angel Gabriel was sent to a virgin woman named Mary, who was engaged to Joseph, a descendant of King David.
• Mary was troubled and he (the angel) told her not to be afraid for she had found favour in the Lord
• The angel announced the following concerning Jesus to mary
  
  1. He shall bear a son
  2. He shall be called Jesus
  3. He will be great
  4. He will be called the son of the Most High God.
  5. He will rule over the house of Jacob forever.
  6. The Lord would give Him the throne of his Father, David
  7. His kingdom would last forever
  8. He will be conceived through the power of the Holy Spirit

Events that took place during the Birth of Jesus Christ

Luke 2:1-20

• Function Of The Bible
  • Importance of Bible
• Divisions of the Bible
  • The books of the old testaments according to classification
  • The books of the New testaments according to classification
• Bible translation
  • How People Benefited From Different Translations Of The Bible
  • The Different Translations Of The Bible
  • The Different Versions Of The Bible
• Leadership in the Bible: Moses
  • Characteristics Of A Good Leader
  • How God prepared Moses for Leadership

FUNCTION OF THE BIBLE

The Bible is the inspired word of God.

How the Bible is used in different places and occasions

1. The Bible is used when taking oaths in courts of law.
2. It is used in schools and colleges for learning, during graduation ceremonies, prayers and research.
3. It is used in statehouse or during state functions, during the swearing in ceremonies and prayers.
4. It is used in churches and during crusades for preaching.
5. It is used at home for personal use during prayer time and home study
6. In hospitals when praying for the sick
7. Some Christians use the Bible before travelling to pray for journey mercies

Importance of Bible

John 1:1-2, Proverbs 30:5-6  

• It contains the word of God
• It gives hope to Christians
• It helps us to understand biblical truths
• The Bible helps a person to discover the will of God
• God speaks to people through the scriptures
• The Bible corrects people when they are wrong and teaches them to do right. Christians should used exemplary lives.
• God protects those whose seek his protection and rebukes liars
• The Bible is the word of God and it was written by people who inspired by the spirit of God.
• The Bible unites people of God, strengthens the faith of the belivers and outlines values for quality Christian living.

How the Bible is used to spread the word of God   

The Bible is used in spreading the word of God in the following ways:

1. Christians songs are composed using Bible messages
2. The Bible is distributed to individuals to read the word of God
3. It is used for instructing and teaching new converts of Christian doctrine
4. It is used to take oaths therefore, increasing the faith of those who participate
5. Christians translate the Bible to vernacular so that many people can read and understand.

The role of the Bible for holistic growth

Holistic growth involves physical, emotional, social, intellectual and spiritual growth.
The Bible helps Christians to grow holistically

How the Bible promotes spiritual growth

Spiritual growth includes

1. Increasing your knowledge and understanding of the word of God
2. Increase in faith and trust in God
3. Developing Christ-like qualities

Role of the Bible in promoting physical growth

Pupil’s activity
Page 51

Role of the Bible in promoting moral growth

Moral growth is the process of developing proper attitudes and behaviuour towards other people based on cultural norms and love

Pupil’s activity
Page 51

Role of the Bible in promoting social, emotional and intellectual growth

Social growth

The Bible tells us that everyone is created in God’s image. Therefore we should not discriminate against others.
We should help those in need, respect and love our neighbour as we love ourselves

Emotional growth

The Bible builds our emotions. When facing sad and difficult situations. It brings us close to God. God provides everything for our enjoyment and we should express our joy to him.

Intellectual growth

As we grow in strength, the Bible helps us to grow in wisdom. God gives us the ability to comprehend, think, reason and remember. The Bible helps us to make correct decisions for quality Christian living.

How God’s word inspires different services among Christians

Christian service is demonstration of who we are in Christ.

• The Bible teaches people to love God and humankind. Helping the needy in the society improves a person’s relationship with God
• Service offered to others is part of Christian living and makes the world a better place to live. Serving others makes one happy and enriches other people’s lives.
• The word of God has inspired different services among Christians. For example, Christians visit the orphans, give them food, clothes and even take them to school.
• Christians donate food, money and medicine to help people suffering when disasters like floods, accidents earthquakes, drought and famine occur
• Christians support refugees by counselling, educating and giving medical care. They also offer shelter, food and sometimes employment.
• For people who are unable to attend church service, the gospel is taken to them through crusades and public rallies.

Divisions of the Bible

The Bible has 2 divisions

1. Old testaments - 39 books
2. New testaments – 27 books

Why are there two divisions of the Bible

• The two divisions were written at different times in human history
• The two divisions were addressed to different people and individuals
• The messages contained in the two testaments address different issues that were of specific concern to the people addressed.

Importance of the two divisions of the Bible to Christians

• The old testaments talks about how the world was created, the Exodus of Israelites and Ten Commandments given to Moses by God.
  The testaments also includes real life stories
  The function of this testament is to teach Christians through the experiences of other people throughout history.
  Several books also foretell the arrival of the Messiah and the end of the world.
• The New Testament focuses more on the life and teachings of Jesus and the early church.
  The stories are narrated through gospels and emphasise the importance of the sacrifices of Jesus.
  The function of the New testaments is to lead people to follow the example of Jesus more closely. The other books, written by various authors also talk about the end of the world.

The books of the old testaments according to classification

OLD TESTAMENT

It was originally written in Hebrew.
It was written before Jesus Christ came to exist physically.
It was later translated to Greek and other languages.
The following are groups of books in the Old Testament respective of their appearance.

1. Torah/Pentateuch/law/mosaic.
2. Historical books.
3. Major Prophets Books.
4. Minor prophet books.

Torah/Pentateuch/law/mosaic.  
They were written by Moses.

1. Genesis
2. Exodus
3. Leviticus
4. Numbers
5. Deuteronomy

Genesis means origin or beginning
Exodus means coming out or departure
Numbers means census
Leviticus explains rules and regulation of priests.

The Ten Commandments (Decalogue) are found in the book of exodus and Deuteronomy.

Historical books.    

Contains the history of what happened to the Israelites and its neighbours.

Poetic/wisdom books 

Major prophetic books  

Minor prophetic books   

NB:
Genesis is the first book of the Bible and the Old Testament.
Malachi is the last book of the Old Testament.

The books of the New testaments according to classification

The New Testament is the period after Christ is born, it is the fulfilment of tthe old testament  prophecies of Jesus.

NEW TESTAMENT    

• It was originally written in Greek.
• Written after Christ.
• The groups of books found in the new testament are:
  
  1. Gospel books.
  2. Historical books.
  3. Pauline epistles.
  4. General epistles.
  5. Prophetic book

Gospel books

They explain the events in life of Jesus from birth to his ascension in Bethany.

Gospel books are divided into two groups:

1. Synoptic books
2. Non- synoptic book.

Synoptic Books  

They explain full life history of Jesus
They are: Matthew, mark and Luke.

Non- Synoptic Book.   

It does not explain full history of Jesus.
It is the book of John.

Historical book   

1. Acts of apostle
   The writer of acts of apostle was Luke.
   It explains the life of believers in the early church.

Pauline epistles

These are letters which were written by Paul while he was in prison.
They are

1. Romans
2. 1 Corinthians
3. 2 Corinthians
4. Galatians
5. Ephesians
6. Philippians
7. Colossians
8. 1 Thessalonians
9. 2 Thessalonians
10. 1 timothy
11. 2 Timothy
12. Titus
13. Philemon

General epistles   

Written by different writers who were inspired by God.