Open Source Content Management

• Capitalization
• Punctuation
  • End Marks
  • The Comma
  • The Semicolon and the Colon
  • The Hyphen
  • The Apostrophe
  • Quotation Mark
• Question Tags

Capitalization

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining letters in lower case. The following are the cases when capitalization is used:

1. Abbreviations
   Abbreviations begin with a capital letter.
   1. Title of persons
      Examples
      Prof George Saitoti
      Mr. Stephen Kiama
   2. Words used as addresses 
      Examples:
      St. (street)
      Ave. (Avenue)
      Note that all the above abbreviations end with a period. Miss is not an abbreviation, so it doesn’t end with a period.
   3. Words used as business
      Examples:
      Co. (Company) 
      Corp. (Corporation)
   4. Some abbreviations are written in all capital letters, with a letter standing for each important word.
      Examples:
      P.O. (Post Office)
      USA (United States of America)
   5. Initials of names of persons
      Examples:
      E.W. Gichimu
      D.M. Weyama
2. Titles of books, newspapers, magazines, TV shows and movies.
   Examples:
   The Minister’s Daughter (book)
   Tahidi High (TV show)
   The Daily Nation( newspaper)
   Capitalize the first and last words only. Do not capitalize little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor etc
3. Titles of shorts stories, songs, articles, book chapters and most poems.
   Examples:
   Half a Day (short story)
   Kigeugeu (song)
4. Religious names and terms
   Examples:
   God
   Allah
   Jesus
   the Bible
   Do not capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to mythological deities.
5. Major words in geographical names
   Examples:
   Continents – Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia
   Water bodies – the Indian Ocean,
6. Names of organisations and institutions
   Examples:
   Kianjege West Secondary School, United Nations, University of Nairobi, Nairobi Women’s Hospital
   Note that here you capitalize only the important words. Do not capitalize such words such as a, in, and of. Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital when they are not used as parts of names.
   Example: There will be a beauty contest at school
7. Months, days and holidays
   Examples:
   June
   Tuesday
   Labour Day
   Do not capitalize names of seasons: autumn, summer, winter, spring
8. Languages, races, nationalities and religions
   Examples:
   Chinese
   Kikuyu
9. The first word of every sentence
   Example:
   What an exciting day it was!
10. The pronoun I
    Example: 
    What should I do next?
11. Proper Nouns
    Examples:
    Lang’ata Cemetery
    Ann Pauline Nyaguthii Kangaita
    Women’s Group
    Muhigia Teachers Sacco
12. Proper Adjectives
    Examples:
    We ate at an Italian restaurant
    She is a German
13. The first word in greetings and the closing of a letter.
    Examples:
    Dear Mark,
    Yours sincerely,
14. Quotations
    Examples:
    Jamlick exclaimed, “This book would make a great movie!”
    “Where,” asked the stranger, “is the post office?”
    “It’s late,” Billy said. “Let’s go home!”
15. First word of each main topic and subtopic in an outline
    Examples:
    1. Parts of speech
       1. Nouns
          1. Proper nouns

Punctuation

Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a punctuation mark. For example (. , ! - : etc)
Punctuation marks can be grouped into:

1. End marks
2. The comma
3. The semicolon and the colon
4. The hyphen
5. The apostrophe
6. Quotation mark

1. End Marks

   There are three kinds of end marks: the full stop (.), the question mark (?), and the exclamation mark (!). End marks show where sentences end

   1. The full stop (.)

      A full stop is used to end a complete sentence. We use a full stop to end:
      • a declarative sentence- a sentence that makes a state
        Example:
        The highest skyscraper in Nairobi is Times Tower.
      • an imperative sentence – a sentence that makes a request or tells someone to do something.
        Example:
        Please climb the stairs carefully.
        Note: An imperative sentence is followed by an exclamation mark when it expresses a
        strong emotion.
        Example:
        Be careful!
      • at the end of an indirect question – one that tells what someone asked, without using the person’s exact words.
        Other uses of the full stop
        Full stops are also used:
      • after initials and after most abbreviations
        Examples:
        L.L. Coo J.
        Mr. Sammy Njagi
        11:00 A.M.
        Note that some abbreviations do not require full stops:
        Examples:
        M (metres) FM (frequency modulation) Km kilometres)
      • after each number or letter that shows a division of an outline or precedes an item in a list.
        Examples:
        Outline                       List
        1.Parts of speech      1. Water – borne diseases
          A. Nouns                  2. Air-borne disease
      • between numerals representing dollars, cents, before a decimal and in percentages
        Examples:
        $ 25.65
        165.42
        25.3%

   2. The question mark (?)

      The question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence (a sentence that asks a question).
      Examples:
      When was the Times Tower built?
      Who built it?

   3. The Exclamation mark (!)

      The exclamation mark is used at the end of the exclamatory sentence and after an interjection. (An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emotion or emphasis. An interjection is a word or group of words that expresses strong feelings).
      Examples:
      Exclamatory sentence: Oh, what a tall building it is!
      Interjections: Superb! Fantastic! Impressive!
      An exclamation mark can also be used at the end of an imperative sentence that expresses strong feeling.
      Example:
      Sit! And stay in that chair if you know what’s good for you!

2. The Comma

   There are a number of uses of the comma in English. A comma generally tells the reader where to pause. They are used:
   
   • to separate words in a series except the last
     The three or four items in a series can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, independent clauses, or other parts of sentences.
     Examples:
     Nouns: John, Jim, Jack walk to school everyday.
     Verbs: He located, patched, and sealed the leak in the tyre.
     Adverbs: She walked quickly, steadily, and calmly.
     Prepositional phrases: He walked through the park, over the bridge, and onto the streets.
     Independent clauses: The match was over, the crowd cheered, and Barcelona received the first- place trophy.
     Adjectives: The fresh, ripe fruit was placed in a bowl.
     Note in the above examples that a comma must be used just before the conjunction.
   • Before the conjunction in a compound sentence
     Some students were taking their lunch, but others were studying.
     Marto photographed the accident scene, and he sold the pictures to the newspaper.
     Example:
     Would she be a lawyer, or would she be a doctor?
     Note: A comma is not required in very short compound sentence in which the parts
     are joined by and. However, always use a comma before the conjunctions but and or.
     Examples:
     Marto photographed the accident scene and Toni reported it.
     Marto photographed the accident scene, but Toni reported it.
     Note also: A comma is not required before the conjunction that joins the parts of a compound verb unless there are more than two parts.
     Examples:
     Mary entered and won the beauty contest.
     That camera focuses, flashes, and rewinds automatically.
   • after introductory words phrases or clauses
     Special elements add specific information to a sentence, but they are not essential. A comma is used to separate a special element from the rest of the sentence.
     Examples:
     Word: Cautiously, he entered the building
     Phrase: After his failure, he disappeared from the public scene.
     Clause: Because he had practised daily, he presented his new song perfectly.
     Note: If the pause after a short introductory element is very brief, you may omit the comma.
     Examples:
     At first he was unsure of his singing ability.
     Finally it was his turn.
     Commas are also used after introductory words such as yes, no, oh and well when they begin a sentence.
     Examples:
     Well, it’s just too cold out there.
     No, it isn’t seven yet.
     Oh, you have spilled the milk.
   • with interrupters
     Interrupters are words that break, or interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence. The commas are used before and after the interrupter to indicate pauses.
     Examples:
     I didn’t expect, however, to lose the job.
     So many people, assumed, sing as well as he does.
     He was chosen, nevertheless, as the new band leader.
   • to set off nouns of direct address
     Examples:
     Yes, Kamau, you can borrow my book.
     Serah, do you know where I kept my phone?
     How is your leg, grandpa?
   • to set off the spoken words in a direct sentence or quotation from the speech tag
     Examples:
     Jackson said, “After my injury I had to learn to walk again.”
     “The therapists urged me to keep trying,” he continued.
     If the speech tag interrupts the spoken words commas are used after the last word of the first part of the spoken words and after the last word in the speech tag.
     Example:
     “After a while,” he added, “I was walking without a cane”.
     Note: When a sentence is indirect or reported, no commas are used.
     Example:
     He added that after a while he was walking without a cane.
   • when writing dates
     Place a comma after the day of the month.
     Examples:
     July 3, 1965 December 12, 2010
   • when referring to geographical location.
     Place a comma between the name of the town or city and the name of the state, district, or country.
     Examples:
     Kibingoti, Kirinyaga County   
     Mombasa, Kenya
   • after the closing of a friendly or business letter.
     Examples:
     Dear Rose,
     Yours sincerely,

3. The Semicolon (;) and the Colon(:)

   1. The semicolon (;)
      The semicolon is used:
      • to separate the parts of a compound sentence when no conjunction is used.
        Example:
        Mountain climbing is exciting; it can also be dangerous.
        Note that the semicolon replaces the comma and the coordinating conjunction. Conjunctions that are commonly replaced by semicolons are and, but, or, for, and nor.
      • before a conjunctive adverb that joins the clauses of a compound sentence (conjunctive adverbs are words like therefore, however, hence, so, then, moreover, nevertheless, yet, consequently, and besides).
        Example:
        The competition takes place in July; however, I prefer August.
      • to separate the parts of a series when commas occurs within the parts.
        Example:
        Last year I flew to Johannesburg, South Africa; Cairo, Egypt; and Kingston, Jamaica.

4. The Colon (:)

   The colon is used:
   • to introduce a list of items
     Example:
     My school bag contains the following items: exercise books, text books, pencils, pens, a geometrical set, and a packet of crayons.
   • after the greeting of a business letter
     Example:
     Dear Mr. Mututho:
   • between numerals that represent hours and minutes and between chapter and verse in a biblical reference
     Examples:
     9:00 A.M.
     6:00 P.M.
     Exodus 2:1-3

5. The Hyphen (-)

   The hyphen is used:
   • to divide a word at the end of a line of writing.
     Note that only words with two or more syllables may be divided at the end of a line and words should be divided only between syllables.
     Example:
     When walking along the streets of Naivasha Town, he met his friend, Wainaina.
     Never divide a word of one syllable and do not divide words to leave a single letter at the end or beginning of a line.
     Incorrect: a-ttraction
     Correct: attra-ction.
   • in compound adjectives that come before the nouns they modify and in certain compound nouns.
     Examples:
     Samuel Wanjiru was a world-famous athlete.
     She is my sister-in-law.
   • in compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine and in fractions.
     Examples:
     seventy-three relatives one-quarter full

6. The Apostrophe (’)

   The apostrophe is used:
   • to form the possessive of a singular noun
     Add an apostrophe and an s.
     Examples:
     the baby’s cot
     James’s car
   • to form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end in s
     Add an apostrophe and an s.
     Examples:
     children’s
     men’s 
   • to form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in s – Add only the apostrophe.
     Examples:
     tricksters’
     tenants’
   • to form the possessive of an indefinite pronoun
     Use an apostrophe and an s.
     Examples:
     everybody’s
     somebody’s
     nobody’s
     Note: Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun like our, yours, hers, theirs.
   • in names of organisations and business,
     Show possession in the last word only
     Example:
     the United Nations’ brochure
   • in hyphenated terms
     Show possession in the last word only.
     Example:
     My mother-in-law’s photograph album
   • in cases of joint ownership
     Show possession in the last word only.
     Example:
     Peter and Patrick’s Limousine
   • in forming contractions
     In contractions, apostrophes replace omitted letters.
     Examples:
     she’s = she is
     aren’t = are not
     I’m = I am
   • To show that part of a date has been omitted
     Examples:
     The tribal clashes of ’08 (the tribal clashes of 2008)
     The’82 coup attempt (the 1982 coup attempt)

7. Quotation Marks (“ “)

   The quotation marks are used:
   • to enclose the spoken words in a direct sentence. Indirect sentences need no quotation marks.
     Example:
     Direct speech: The presidential candidate promised, “Creating new jobs for the youths will be my first priority.”
     Indirect speech: The presidential candidate promised that creating new jobs would be his first priority.
     Note:
     1. Always begin a direct quotation with a capital letter.
        Example:
        The minister said, “You must conserve our environment.”
     2. When the spoken words are divided by the speech tag, begin the second part of the quotation with a small letter.
        Example:
        “Bring me the money,” said the moneylender, “before the end of the day.”
        If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the first word of this sentence is capitalized.
        Example:
        “I am scared,” said the borrower. “That money lender is a brute.”
     3. Place commas and fullstops inside quotation marks
        Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
        Examples:
        “Last month,” the borrower explained, “I borrowed some money from the moneylender.”
        Carol said to the borrower, “And you refused to repay back on time”; however, the borrower did not agree.
     4. Place question marks and exclamation marks inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation. Place them outside if they do not belong to the quotation.
        Examples:
        Carol asked, “How much money did you borrow?”
        Did the borrower say, “I can’t remember”?
        “You are a fool!” exclaimed Carol.
     5. Use single quotation marks to enclose a title or quotation within a quotation.
        Example:
        “Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember’ before she lost her temper.”
        If the tile or quotation within the quotation ends the sentence, use both the single and the double quotation marks after the last word of a sentence.
        Example:
        “Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember.’”
     6. In a quotation of more than one paragraph, use quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and the end of the final paragraph.

Question Tags

A question tag or a tag question is a phrase that is added at the end of a statement to turn into a question. When a speaker uses a question tag at the end of a statement, he/she is seeking for approval, confirmation or correction.

Examples:
APPROVAL: I look smart today, don’t I? Yes you do.
CORFIRMATION: These are the new students, aren’t they? Yes they are.
CORRECTION: I paid your money yesterday, didn’t I ? No you didn’t

Many learners face a problem of supplying the correct question tags to sentences. This is because they fail to observe the following rules of question tags:

1. A comma must be put to separate the statement with the question tag. A question mark must be placed at the end of the question tag.
   Examples:
   Rufftone has released a new album, hasn’t he?
   He is pushing for a decision by tomorrow, isn’t he?
2. The auxiliary verb in the statement must be repeated in the question tag
   Examples:
   Neson Mandela was in prison for 27 years, wasn’t he?
   The people of South Africa have lost a great hero, haven’t they?
3. When there is no auxiliary verb in the statement, the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb Do must be used in the question tag
   Examples:
   Mark Francis wakes up very early, doesn’t he?
   Peter Bryan bought an I-pad phone, didn’t he ?
4. The subject in the statement must be repeated in the question tag. If it is a noun in the statement, it changes to the appropriate pronoun. If it is a pronoun in the statement, it remains a pronoun in the question tag.
   Examples:
   Fatou Bensouda is prosecutor in ICC, isn’t she?
   She does her work meticulously, doesn’t she?
5. When the statement is positive ( i.e. It does not have the word not in it), the question tag must be negative ( i.e. must use the negative word not) and visa versa.
   Examples:
   David Rudisha has broken another record, hasn’t he?
   Cathrerine Ndereba hasn’t been very active, has she?
   Douglas Wakiihuri does not run any more, does he?
   Ezekiel Kemboi entertains the audience after winning, doesn’t he?
   You will note form the above examples that the auxiliary verb is usually contrated (joined) with the negative indicator not when using question tags.
   However, this does not apply when using primary auxiliary verb am and the modal auxiliary verbs will and shall. Am does not allow contraction with not, will and shall usually change their forms to allow contraction.
   Examples:
   WRONG : am the next speaker, amn’t I?
   CORRECT: I am the nest speaker, am I not?
   WRONG: They will be late for church, willn’t they?
   CORRECT: They will be late for church, won’t they?
   WRONG: We shall attend the Memorial service, willn’t we?
   CORRECT: we shall attend the memorial service, shan’t we?
6. Whereas there is no inversion in the statement, inversion must occur in the question tag i.e. the auxiliary verb comes before the subject
   Examples:
   President Uhuru Kenyatta has won the case, hasn’t he?
   Subject verb                             verb                 verb subject
   He can now relax and attend to his duties, can’t he?
   Subject verb                                                 verb subject
7. For sentences that are inform of requests and commands, the question tags will commonly take the auxiliary verb will or shall followed by the appropriate pronoun.
   Examples:
   Please help me with your pen, will you?
   Let us go for a swim, shall we?
   Bring me that chair, will you?
   Stop that noise, will you?
   Kneel down right away, will you?

Those are the rules that govern question tags and if followed well, the learners will not have any problems with question tags.

• Subjects and Objects
  • Subjects and Predicates
  • Objects
• Complements
  • Subject Complements
  • Object Complements
• Direct and Indirect Objects
• Preparatory It and There
• Phrases and Clauses
• Sentence Types
• Direct and Indirect Speech
  • Direct Speech
  • Indirect Speech

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A complete thought is clear. A sentence always begins with a capital letter. It ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).

Examples:

• Ted sent me a letter.
• Jane slept soundly.

Subjects and Objects

Subjects and Predicates

The two fundamental parts of every English sentence are the subject and the predicate. A subject can be described as the component that performs the action described by the predicate. It tells who or what does or did the action. It may also name the topic.

The predicate tells about the subject. It tells what the subject does or is.
Examples:
Subject                                    Predicate
(Who or what)                         (What is said about the subject)
The antelope                           jumped over the high fence.
Pigs                                         eat anything is sight when hungry.

In a sentence, a few key words are more important than the rest. These key words make the basic framework of the sentence. The verb and its subject are the key words that form the basic framework of every sentence. The rest of the sentence is built around them.
Examples:
Sentence                                                             Key words
The young kids jumped playfully.                         kids, jumped
Their faces shone brightly.                                   faces, shone

To find out the subject, ask who or what before the verb.
Examples:

• Who jumped playfully? – kids
• What shone brightly? – faces

To find out the verb, ask what after the subject.
Examples:

• The young kids did what? – jumped
• Their faces did what? – shone

The key word in the subject of a sentence is called the simple subject. For example, kids, faces. The complete subject is the simple subject plus any words that modify or describe it. For example, The young kids, Their faces.

The key word in the predicate is called the simple predicate. For example, jumped, shone. The complete predicate is the verb plus any words that modify or complete the verb’s meaning. For example, jumped playfully, shone brightly.

The simple subjects and predicates may sometimes be more than one word. For simple subjects, it may be the name of a person or a place.
Examples:

• Barrack Obama won the US presidential race.
• South Africa is the home of many bats.

The simple predicate may also be more than one word. There may be a main verb and
a helping verb.

• Tanya has acted in many TV shows.
• She will be performing again tonight.

Objects

An object in a sentence is a word or words that complete the meaning of a sentence. It is involved in the action but does not carry it out. The object is the person or thing affected by the action described in the verb. It is always a noun or a pronoun and it always comes after the verb.
Example:

• The man climbed a tree.

Some verbs complete the meaning of sentences without the help of other words. The action that they describe is complete.
Examples:

• It rained.
• The temperature rose.

Some other verbs do not express a complete meaning by themselves. They need to combine with other words to complete the meaning of a sentence.
Examples:

• Christine saw the snake.
• Rose wears goggles.
• He opened the door.

In the above examples, the snake, goggles and the door are the objects as they are the things being affected by the verbs in the sentences.

Complements

Some sentences do not take objects or adverbs (or adverbial phrases) after the verbs. Instead, they take complements. A complement is the part of the sentence that gives more information about the subject (subject complement) or about the object (object complement) of the sentence.

Subject Complements

Subject complements normally follow certain verbs like be, seem, look, etc.
Examples:

• He is British. (British gives more information about he)
• She became a nurse. (nurse gives more information about she)

Object Complements

Object complements follow the direct objects of the verb and give more information
about those direct objects.
Examples:

• They painted the house red. (red is a complement giving more information about the direct object house)
• She called him an idiot. (an idiot is a complement giving more information about the direct
  object he).

The complement often consists of an adjective (e.g. red) or a noun phrase (e.g. an idiot) but can also be a participle phrase.
Example:
I saw her standing there. (standing there is a complement telling more about her).

Direct and Indirect Objects

Objects come in two types, direct and indirect:

Direct Objects

The direct object is the word that receives the action of a verb.
Examples:

• Christine saw a snake. ( a snake receives the action of saw)
• Rose wears goggles. (goggles receives the action of wears)

Sometimes the direct object tells the result of an action.
Examples:

• Tecla won the race.
• She received a trophy.

To find the direct object first find the verb. Then ask whom or what after the verb.
Examples:

• Christine saw a snake.
  Verb: saw
  Saw what? a snake
• Rose ears goggles
  verb: wears
  wears what? goggles
• Tecla won the race
  Verb: won
  Won what? the race
• She received a trophy
  verb: received
  received what? a trophy

Remember, we said earlier that a verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb and a verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive verb. We also said that a verb may be intransitive in one sentence and transitive in another. Other verbs are strictly intransitive like disagree.

Indirect Objects

The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object. They tell us for whom or to whom something is done. Others tell to what or for what something is done.
Examples:
I gave him the book.
He is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the book.

Direct object or adverb?

Direct objects are sometimes confused with adverbs. The direct object tells what or whom as we have seen earlier. Adverbs on the other hand tell how, where, when or to what extent. They modify the verbs.
Examples:
Brian Swam slowly. (slowly is an adverb telling how)
Brian Swam a tough race. (race is a direct object telling what).

Verbs can also be followed by a phrase that tells how, when, or where. This kind of a phrase is never a direct object but an adverbial phrase.
Example:
Brian swam across the pool. (a cross the pool tells where Brian Swam).

Therefore, to decide whether a word or a phrase is a direct object or adverb, decide first what it tells about the verb. If it tells how, where, when or to what extent, it is an adverb. If it tells what or whom, it is a direct object

Preparatory It and There

The preparatory It is used to show opinion or condition (especially concerning time, distance, and weather). The preparatory It acts as a dummy subject and is usually followed by the verb be (or a modal + be). The logical subject in sentences beginning with It is often a to-infinitive phrase or a noun clause.

• It is nice to meet you.
• It would be fun to live on a sailboat.
• It is important that we not litter in the park.
• It is 3:30 p.m. right now.
• It never snows in July around here.
• It is believed that he will arrive next week.

The preparatory There often begins sentences that show location or existence, especially when the existence of something or someone is mentioned for the first time. It is usually followed by the verb be (or a modal + be).

• Look! There’s a bear.
• There’s a shooting star in the sky.
• There will be a party on Saturday.
• There is a mosquito in my bedroom.
• There was a new girl at school today.

Phrases and Clauses

Phrases are groups of related words that can include either a subject or a tensed verb.

Prepositional phrases have a preposition and an object of the preposition.

• There was a delicious smell coming from the kitchen.
• The dog barked at the stranger.

Gerund phrases have a gerund and can function the same way as a noun. They often appear as the object of a preposition.

• Thank you for coming to my house.
• Walking alone late at night is dangerous.

Infinitive phrases have an infinitive and can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

• Lisa is going to university to study economics.
• To see the Eiffel Tower is a dream of mine.

Participial phrases have a participle and function as an adjective. They are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

• Having seen the play three times, she didn’t want to see it again.
• Janice, not used to ice skates, fell down and hurt her knee.

Clauses are groups of related words that include both a subject and a tensed verb

Independent clauses can stand alone as a sentence. Two independent clauses are often connected with a coordinating conjunction.

• Maria is afraid of animals, so she doesn’t go near them.
• We are going swimming, but they are going shopping.

Dependent clauses cannot stand alone as a sentence. They need an independent clause to form a complete sentence. When a dependent clause begins a sentence, a comma is used to separate it from the independent clause.

• We are going swimming since it is so hot outside.
• Since it is so hot outside, we are going swimming.

Sentence Types

Simple sentences have just one independent clause.

• We celebrated Grandpa’s eightieth birthday yesterday.
• Amy loves peanut butter and jelly sandwiches.

Compound sentences have more than one independent clause.

• He finished all of his homework, but he forgot to bring it to school.
• Sue was late for swimming practice, and she left her goggles at home.

Complex sentences have one independent and one dependent clause.

• She didn’t eat because she wasn’t hungry.
• Although he sprained his ankle, he finished the race.

Compound-complex sentences have more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Before the plane took off, Sarah called her dad to say good-bye, but he didn’t answer the phone.
I like this class; though early in the morning, it’s very interesting.

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct Speech

Direct speech is used to give a speaker’s exact words. It is also referred to as direct quotation.
Direct speech is always enclosed within quotation marks.
Examples:

• Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory ”
• “Creating jobs will be my first priority” the governor said.

A comma always separates the quoted words from the speaker’s name, whether the name comes before or after the quotation
Examples:

• Jim asked “Who are you voting fir?”
• “I don’t know yet” answered Carol.

A direct quotation always begins with a capital letter
Example:

• Senator Karabba said, “You must believe in the new constitution”.

When a direct quotation is divided by speech tags, the second part of the quotation must  begin with a small letter.
Example:

• “Register to vote,” said the senator, ‘before the end of the day”.

If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the forst kword of this sentence is capitalized.
Example:

• “I did register,” said Carol. “It took only a few minutes”

Commas and full stops are placed inside quotation marks
Example:

• “Last night,” said Joyce,” I listened to a debate”

Quotation marks and exclamation marks are placed inside a quotation mark if they belong to the quotation. If they do not, they are placed outside the quotation.
Examples:

• Joyce asked, “Whom are you voting for?
• Did Carol say, “I don’t know yet’?
• I can’t believe that she said, “I don’t know yet’!

Speech tags may appear before, in the middle or at the direct speech.
Examples:

• He said, “You know quite well that you have to vote”
• “You know quite well, he said, “that you have to vote”.
• “You know quite well that you have to vote,” he said.

Indirect Speech

Indirect speech is used to refer to a person’s words without quoting him or her exactly. It is also referred to as indirect quotation or reported speech. The original spoken words are not repeated.

The exact meaning is given without repeating the speaker’s words.
Example:
Direct speech: The governor said, “Creating new jobs will be my first priority”
Indirect speech: The governor said that creating new jobs would be his first priority.

Several changes do occur when changing a sentence from direct to indirect speech

1. Quotation marks
   Quotation marks are left out when writing a sentence in direct speech.
   Example:
   Direct: Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory”
   Indirect: Hemedi announced that his aunt worked in a biscuit factory.
2. Tense - The tense of a verb in the direct sentence will change in indirect speech
   Examples:
   1. Simple present changes to past simple
      Direct: John said, “She goes to school early”
      Indirect: John said that she went to school early.
   2. Simple past changes to past perfect
      Direct: John said, “She went to school early”
      Indirect: John said that she had gone to school early.
   3. Present progressive changes to past progressive
      Direct: “The baby is eating a banana,” the nurse said.
      Indirect: The nurse said that the baby was eating a banana.
   4. Present perfect changes to past perfect
      Direct: “South Sudan has become a republic,” the new president declared.
      Indirect: The new president declared that South Sudan had become a republic
   5. Past progressive changes to past perfect progressive
      Direct: “ I was dreaming when the fire started,” the boy said.
      Indirect: The boy said the he had been dreaming when the fire started.
   6. Future simple changes to modal
      Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” my desk mate said.
      Indirect: My desk mate said the he would visit me the following day.
   7. May changes to might
      Direct: : I may also visit you too,” I replied.
      Indirect: I replied that I might also visit him too.

Sometimes the verb in indirect speech does not change tense. This occurs in sentences that are universal truths
Direct: Our Geography teacher said “The earth rotates round the sun”
Indirect: Our Geography teacher said that the earth rotates round the sun

Words referring to place also change
Examples:
Direct: “I live here,” retorted the old man.
Indirect: The old man retorted that he lived there
Direct: “This place stinks,” noted the boy.
Indirect: The boy noted that that place stunk.

Words referring to time also change
Examples:
Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” he shouted.
Indirect: He shouted that he would visit me the following/next day

Direct : “ He died last year,” the policeman reported.
Indirect: The policeman reported that he had dies the previous year/ the year before.

Demonstrative pronouns also change:
Examples:
Direct: “This book is mine,” Jane claimed.
Indirect: Jane claimed that that book was hers.

Direct: “These are hard times,” observed the president.
Indirect: The president observed that those were hard times.

Pronouns also change when rewriting a sentence from direct to indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct: “My car is better than yours,” the teacher bragged.
Indirect: The teacher bragged that his/her car was better that his/hers/theirs.

• Coordinating Conjunctions
• Subordinating Conjunctions
• Correlative Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words. Like prepositions, conjunctions show a relationship between the words they connect. But, unlike prepositions, conjunctions do not have objects.
There are 3 main categories of conjunctions;

1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Subordinating conjunctions
3. Correlative conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect related words, groups of words, or sentences. There are three coordinating conjunctions: and, but and or. And is used to join words, groups of words, or sentences together. But shows contrast while or shows choice.
Examples:

• The bull and the cart are inseparable. (connects two subjects).
• The cart carries the farmer and his tools. (connects two direct objects).
• The food was hard and tasteless. (connects two predicate adjectives).
• Each night, the dancers danced in a circle or in several other patterns. (connects two prepositional phrases).
• Some people died in the fracas, but most managed to escape, alive. (connects two sentences).

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions connect two or more clauses to form complex sentences. Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses. They include because, since, if, as, whether, and for.
Examples:

• If I go home, my dog will follow me.
  The subordinating conjunction if connects the subordinate clause I go home with the main clause my dog will follow me.
• The stayed inside the church because it was raining.
• He was always rude since he was a child.
• The rain fell as they entered the building.
• The pastor asked the congregation whether they were happy.
• The man rejoiced for he had won a prize.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs to connect sentence parts. These include either ….. or, neither ….. nor, not only……. but also, whether ……. or and both …… and.
Examples:

• Both boys and girls attended the conference.
• People brought not only food but also clothes for the victims of the floods.
• The students ride either on bicycles or motorbikes.
• The sailor had to decide whether to sail on or head back when the weather changed.
• Neither John nor James was moved by the shocking news.

• Definite and Indefinite Adjectives
• Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
  • The Comparative
  • The Superlative

An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. To describe or modify means to provide additional information about nouns or pronouns. To modify further means to change something slightly.

Writers and speakers modify an idea or image by choosing certain describing words, which are called adjectives. Hence, these adjectives are also called modifiers. Adjectives are like word cameras. They are words that describe colours, sizes and shapes. Adjectives help you capture how the world around you looks and feels.

Definite and Indefinite Adjectives

These are adjectives which tell how many or how much. They give the number or the quantity, either specific or approximate, of the noun in question. They are also referred to as numerals
Examples:

• Three elephants were killed by the game rangers.
• He bought several houses in Kileleshwa.
• Don’t put much sugar in the tea!

More examples of numerals

Adjectives that are in form of numbers are used with countable nouns:
Examples:

• Two calves were born yesterday.
• Five chimpanzees performed funny tricks.
• Many children like dinosaurs.

A definite or indefinite adjective may look like a pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence. It is an adjective used to modify a noun.

Adjectives that are in farm of quantity are used with uncountable nouns.
Examples:

• Do you have any water in the house?
• How much flour did you buy?

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

To compare two people, places or things, we use the comparative form of an adjective. To compare more than two, we use the superlative form of the adjective.
Examples:
ONE PERSON: Kimenju is tall.
TWO PERSONS: Kimenju is taller than James.
THREE OR MORE: Kimenju is the tallest of all.

The comparative

The comparative form of the adjective is used to compare one thing, person or place  with another one. It is formed in two ways.

1. For short adjectives, add -er.
   Examples:
   great + er = greater
   sweet + er = sweeter
   big + er = bigger
   light + er = lighter.
2. For longer adjectives, the comparative is formed by using the word more before them.
   Examples:
   More handsome
   more remarkable
   More attractive
   more hardworking
   
   Most adjectives ending in -ful and -ous also form the comparative using more.
   Examples:
   More successful
   more curious
   more ferocious
   More beautiful
   more generous
   more prosperous

The Superlative

The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare a person, a place or a thing with more than one other of its kind.
Examples:

• Elephants are the largest animals in the jungle.
• However, they are the most emotional animals.
  The superlative form of an adjective is formed in two ways.

1. By adding -est to the short adjective
   Examples:
   great + est = greatest
   sweet + est = sweetest
   big + est = biggest
   light + est = light
2. For longer adjectives, use most before them.
   Examples:
   most mysterious
   most awkward
   most successful
   most attractive
   The ending -er in the comparative becomes -est in the superlative while more becomes most.
   Adjective           comparative                superlative
   strong                stronger                       strongest
   quick                  quicker                         quickest
   adventurous      more adventurous       most adventurous
   co-operative      more co-operative         most co-operative

• Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
• Progressive and Non-progressive (Stative) Verbs
• Phrasal Verbs
• Verb moods
  • Indicative and Imperative
  • Present Subjunctive
  • Past Subjunctive
• Verb Tenses
  • The Present Tense
  • The Past Tense
  • The Future Tense
  • The Simple Tenses
  • The Perfect Tenses
  • The Progressive Verb Forms

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs require a direct object for their meaning to be complete.

Intransitive verbs do NOT require a direct object for their meaning to be complete.

Some verbs can be transitive or intransitive depending on the context in the sentence

Progressive and Non-progressive (Stative) Verbs

Progressive verbs describe an action occurring over a period of time. They are formed with the verb be + the present participle (-ing form)

Non-progressive (Stative) verbs do not describe actions. Instead, they describe a state or condition. The state or condition can occur over a period of time. They are NOT formed with be + the present participle.

Common non-progressive (stative) verbs: appreciate, believe, dislike, exist, fear, hate, know, like, love, need, prefer, realize, resemble, seem, sound, understand

Many verbs can be progressive or non-progressive (stative) depending on the context of the sentence.

Common progressive and non-progressive verbs: appear, cost, feel, forget, have, hear, imagine, include, look, measure, remember, see, smell, taste, think, want, weigh

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are verbs that combine with a preposition to create a meaning that is different from the two words taken separately. With some phrasal verbs, the object must be placed after the preposition.

Other common non-separable phrasal verbs: check in, drop out (of), get along (with), get off, get in, grow up, look after, take after, run into.

With some phrasal verbs, the object can be placed between the verb and the preposition or after the preposition.

Other common separable phrasal verbs: call off, cheer up, drop off, find out, give up, hand in, look up, make up, put off, take over, turn on, turn down

Note that not every verb + preposition is a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs are only those combinations that have a separate meaning.

Verb Moods

Indicative and Imperative

The indicative mood is the most common verb mood in English. It is used to express facts and opinions, or to ask questions about them. The indicative mood is used in all verb tenses.

The imperative mood is used to make requests or give orders and warnings. It is used only in the simple present and future tenses.

Present Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is used to express uncertain actions or states.

The present subjunctive* is formed with the base form of a verb. It follows verbs, nouns, or adjectives that express suggestion, demand, or request.

* The term “present” refers to the form of the subjunctive verb (base form) rather than the time in which the action happens. The following sentences all use the present subjunctive mood:

• The patient asked that he be given more medicine.
• The patient requests that he be given more medicine.
• The patient is demanding that he be given more medicine.
• The patient will insist that he be given more medicine.

** Often, that is not omitted from sentences.

Past Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is also used to express uncertain actions or states.

The past subjunctive* is formed with the simple past form of a verb that describes a state, condition, or habit. With the verb be, the form were (not was) is always used. It refers to hypothetical or imaginary situations.

Verb Tenses

The time of an action or the state of being is expressed by different forms of the verb. These forms are called the tenses of the verb.
There are three main forms of a verb: the present, the past, or the future.

The Present Tense

A verb which is in present tense indicates what the subject of the sentence is doing right now.
Example:
The teacher sees the students.
The verb sees tells that the teacher is seeing the students now. To show the present tense, an -s or -es is added to most verbs if the subject is singular.

If the subject is plural, or I or You, the -s, or -es is not added.
Example:
The bird hatches in the nest.
The stream flows down the hill.
The boys rush for their breakfast.
We talk a lot.

Rules for forming the Present Tense with Singular Subjects

1. Most verbs: add –s
   get – gets
   play – plays
   eat – eats
2. Verbs ending in s, ch, sh, x, and z: add-es
   pass – passes
   mix – mixes
   punch-punches
   buzz – buzzes
   push – pushes
3. Verbs ending with a consonant and y:
   change the y to i and add -es
   try - tries
   empty – empties

The Past Tense

A verb which is in past tense shows what has already happened.
Example:
Tito liked his grandmother’s story.
The verb liked tells that the action in the sentence happened before now.

Rules for forming the Past Tense

1. Most verbs: Add -ed
   play – played
   talk – talked
   climb – climbed
2. Verbs ending with e: Add -d
   praise – praised
   hope – hoped
   wipe – wiped
3. Verbs ending with a consonant and -y: the y to i and add -ed
   bury – buried
   carry – carried
   study – studied
4. Verbs ending with a single vowel and a consonant: Double the final consonant and add-ed
   stop – stopped
   man – manned
   trip – tripped

The Future Tense

A verb which is in future tense tells what is going to happen.
Examples:
Evans will take his car to the garage.
She will probably come with us.

The verbs will take and will come tell us what is going to happen. Hence, they are in future tense.

To form the future tense of a verb, use the helping verb will or shall with the main verb.

The Simple Tenses

The most common tenses of the verb are the simple tenses. You use them most often in your speaking and writing.

1. Present simple tense.
   Look at the following sentences.
   1. I know Kisumu
   2. He goes to school everyday.
   3. The sun rises from the east.
      All the above sentences contain a verb in the present simple tense. This tense is used for different purposes.
      
      1. To state a personal fact
         Example: I know Kisumu.
      2.  To point out a regular habit.
         Example: He goes to school everyday.
      3. To state known a scientific fact
         Example: The sun rises from the east.
2. Past Simple Tense
   The past simple tense is used when an action has been completed .
   Examples:
   We cleaned our classrooms yesterday.
   He drove the car this morning.
   She planned the whole incident.
3. Future Simple Tense
   The future simple tense places the action or condition in the future. It is formed by using the word shall or will before the present form of the main verb.
   Examples:
   We shall need help with her load.
   She will eat the bananas alone.
   The dancers will entertain them.

The Perfect Tenses

The perfect tenses are used to show that an action was completed or that a condition existed before a given time.
The perfect tenses are formed using has, have, or had before the past participles i.e.
verb forms ending in -ed.
Examples:

1. Present Perfect Tense:
   Ceasar has just finished his homework.
   Kamau and Njoroge have now agreed to meet.
2. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
   Kibet has been working in his shamba for two hours.
   We have been swimming in this pool for ten minutes.
3. Past Perfect Tense
   We had completed the work by the time the supervisor came.
   Nobody knew that she had already remarried.
4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
   I had been trying to contact him for two hours before he finally appeared.
   Mrs. Masumbuko had been feeling unwell the whole week before she decided to visit
   a doctor.
5. Future Perfect Tense
   Agege will have sold his goats by two p.m.
   By next term, twenty students will have dropped from this school.
6. Future Perfect Continuous
   The players will have been playing for twenty minutes by the time the President arrives.
   By the end of this term, she will have been living with her aunt for five years.

The Progressive Verb Forms

The progressive form of the verb shows continuing action.
Examples:
I am singing
She was dancing.

The progressive form is formed using various forms of the verb be plus the present participle i.e. a verb form that ends in -ing.
Examples:

1. Present Progressive Tense
   I am reading a book about Red Indians.
   Her mother is preparing dinner.
2. Present Perfect Progressive
   He has been cleaning his car since morning.
   They have been exercising for a week now.
3. Past Progressive Tense
   She was cooking supper when I arrived.
   They were fighting fiercely when the police arrived.
4. Past Perfect Progressive Tense
   Sonko had been wearing an earing for years before he removed it.
   Onyancha had been killing children before he was finally discovered.
5. Future Progressive
   He will be tilling the land next week.
   Joyce and Joan will be washing clothes all morning.
6. Future Perfect Progressive
   The children will have been sleeping for two hours by the time their parents arrive.
   John will have grown a beard by the time he is twelve.

• Personal pronouns
  • Forms of Personal Pronouns
• Possessive Pronouns
• Demonstrative Pronouns
• Indefinite Pronouns
• Reflexive Pronoun
• Interrogative Pronoun
  • Using Who, Whom and Whose

A pronoun is a part of speech that takes the place of a noun. They include such words as I, we, he, she, thy, me and us.

Pronouns enable you to avoid repeating the same names (nouns), when writing or speaking, which would otherwise make you sound very awkward and wordy. By using pronouns effectively, you can make your writing and speaking flow smoothly.

Pronouns can be classified into 6 types. These are personal, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, reflexive and intensive pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. They are used to refer to nouns that name persons or things.
Example:

• Awkward Kamau put on Kamau’s gum boots. Then Kamau went to the shamba.
• Improved Kamau put on his gum boots. Then he went to the shamba.

In the above example, the personal pronoun his helps the writer avoid repeating the same noun. The pronoun he acts as a bridge to connect the two sentences.

Personal pronouns are further classified in terms of person and gender.

Person

In terms of person, personal pronouns can be divided into three classes.

1. First person – I, my, me, we, our and us.
   These ones refer to the person(s) speaking.
   Example: I always ride my bike to school.
2. Second person – you, your, yours
   These refer to the person(s) spoken to.
   Example: I will call you tomorrow.
3. Third person – he, his, him, she, hers, her, it, its, they, their, them.
   These ones refer to another person(s) or thing(s) that is being spoken of.

The personal pronoun it usually replaces a noun that stands for a thing or an animal. It is never used in place of a person.

Gender

Personal pronouns can also be classified by gender. Gender can either be masculine
(referring to male people), feminine (referring to female people) or neuter (referring to
animals or things).
Examples:

• Joseph cleaned his car. (His is the third person, masculine gender).
• Isabel said the dress was hers (Hers is the third person, feminine gender).
• The dog wagged its tail. (Its is the third person, neuter gender).

Forms of Personal Pronouns

In English, personal pronouns have three forms: the subject form, the object form and the possessive form.

Examples:

• She is a painter (subject form)
• He praised her. (Object form)
• It is her best painting. (Possessive form)

Subject Pronouns

A subject pronoun takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. These pronouns are:

1. Singular forms – I, you, he, she, it
2. Plural forms – we, you, they
   Examples:
   Noun                                                                 Subject Pronoun
   The housegirl takes care of the baby               She takes care of the baby
   The dog guards the house                                It guards the house
   Mark and Francis love swimming                      They love swimming

Subject pronouns also appear after forms of the linking verbs be.
Examples:

• The watchman today is he.
• The composers were they.

Object pronouns

Object pronouns can replace nouns used after action verbs. These pronouns are:

1. Singular – me, you, him, her, it
2. Plural – us, you them
   Examples:
   
   • The driver drove him. (direct object)
   • The parents thanked us. (direct object)
   • The reporters asked him many questions. (indirect object)

In the above examples, the personal pronouns are the direct or indirect objects of the verbs before them.

Object pronouns can also replace nouns after prepositions such as to, for, with, in, at or by. That is, they can be objects of prepositions.
Examples:

• Gladys waved to them. (object of a preposition)
• The delivery is for me.
• Ben went with them to the theatre.

Possessive Pronouns

A possessive pronoun shows ownership.

Example: My pen is black.

There are two kinds of possessive pronouns:

1. Those used as adjectives to modify nouns. These possessive pronouns are:
   Singular: My, your, his, her, its
   Plural: Our, your, their
   Examples:
   • My shirt is yellow.
   • Your food is on the table.
   • His bag is green.
   • This is her dress.
   • Its fur is soft.
   • These are our parents.
   • Pay your bills.
   • They removed their bats.
     The above possessive pronouns always appear before nouns to modify them. Hence, they are called modifiers.
2. Those that stand alone and replace nouns in sentences. These possessive nouns are:
   Singular: mine yours his, hers, its
   Plural: ours yours, their
   Examples:
   • The yellow shirt is mine.
   • The food on the table is yours.
   • The green bag is his.
   • This dress is hers.
   • Its is the soft fur.
   • These crops are ours.
   • These bills are yours.
   • Those hats are theirs.

Points To Note

1. The pronoun I is used as a subject or after forms of the linking verb be.
   Examples:
   Subject: I travel by bus
   After the linking verb be: Yesterday, the prefects on duty were Victor and I
2. The pronoun me is used object after action verbs or words (prepositions) such as to, for, with, in, or at.
   Examples:
   Object: Rose met me at the gate.
   After prepositions: Rose waited for me at the gate.
                                 You are coming with me.
3. When using compound subjects and objects (i.e. subjects and objects comprising of a pronoun and a noun or another pronoun), always name yourself last.
   Examples:
   Diana and I visited our grandmother yesterday.
   Who appointed Chege and me?
   Rose waited for her and me at the gate. or at.

Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun is used to single or point out one or more persons or things referred to in the sentence.
These pronouns are this, that, these, and those.
This and these point to persons or things that are near.
Examples:

• This is a gazelle.
• These are the students of Kianjege West Secondary School.

That and those point to persons or things that are farther away.
Examples:

• That is the city square.
• Those are the lodging rooms.
  
  
• This and that are used with singular nouns.
• These and those are used with plural nouns.

Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or thing.
In English, there are singular indefinite pronouns, plural indefinite and both singular and plural indefinite pronouns.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

another     anything       everybody        neither               one
anybody      each           everyone         nobody           somebody
anymore     either         everything         no one            someone.

An indefinite pronoun must agree with its verbs and in number with its possessive
pronoun. The above indefinite pronouns are used with singular verbs. They are also used
with singular possessive pronouns.

Examples:
Agreement with verbs
Correct: Everyone has heard of Lake Turkana.
Incorrect: Everyone have heard of Lake Turkana.
Correct: Nobody knows what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Incorrect: Nobody know what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Correct: Everything about the old man remains a mystery.
Incorrect: Everything about the old man remain a mystery.

Agreement in number with possessive pronouns
Correct: Neither believed his/her eyes.
Incorrect: Neither believed their eyes.
Correct: Each strained his/her neck to see.
Incorrect: Each strained their neck to see.

Plural indefinite pronouns

both          many           few              several
These indefinite pronouns use plural verbs and possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Plural verbs
Correct: Few know about Lake Olbolsat.
Incorrect: Few knows about Lake Obolsat.
Correct: Both stand by what they believe.
Incorrect: Both stands by what they believe.

Plural possessive pronouns
Correct: Several reported their findings.
Incorrect: Several reported his/her findings.

Both singular and plural indefinite pronouns

all         some         any             none
These indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural, depending on their meaning in the
sentence.
Examples:
All of my story is true – singular
All of the guests are here – plural
None of the lake is foggy – singular
None of the photos are spoiled – plural.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive and intensive pronouns end in -self or -selves. These are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, and themselves.

A reflexive pronoun refers to an action performed by the subject of the sentence. The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun.
Examples:

• Monicah bought herself a new dress. (The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun because we do not know for whom Monicah bought the dress).

Interrogative Pronouns

An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what.
Examples:
Who is the mayor of this town?
Whose is the red car?
Which is her blouse?
What did she ask you?
Whom should I trust with my secret?