Open Source Content Management

• Insha za Methali
  • Methali za kutohadaika
  • Methali zinaoonya kuhusu tamaa na uzuri wa nje
• Insha ya Mjadala
• Insha ya Masimulizi
  • Michezo
  • Mikasa
  • Huzuni
  • Furaha
• Kumbukumbu
• Insha ya Mazungumzo
• Insha ya Maelezo au Wasifu
• Insha ya Hotuba
• Barua Rasmi
• Barua ya Kirafiki ama Kindugu
• Dawa za Kulevya

Insha za Methali

Hutahiniwa kwa namna tatu
Mwanzo, mada na tamati au kijalizio
Iwapo ni mada,jadili au fafanua ikiwa una uwezo
Iwapo ni tamati, jalizia kwa maneno uliyopewa
Iwapo ni mwanzo, endeleza kisa moja kwa moja
Simulia kisa kinachooana na maudhui

Methali za wema, Usaidizi wa Rafiki na Udugu

• Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
• Heri jirani wa karibu kuliko ndugu wa mbali
• Kwendako mema hurudi mema
• Wema hauozi
• Jaza ya ihsani ni ihsani
• Kumpoa mwenzio sio kutupa
• Wawili si mmoja
• Damu ni mzito kuliko maji
• Damu ni damu si kitarasa
• Zimwi likujualo halikuli likakwisha

MsamiatI na Mapambo

• Saidia na kama
• Maiti na jeneza
• Kiko na digali
• Sahani na kawa
• Kinu na mchi
• Alinitilia upendo/alinipiga jeki
• Hali mbaya ya mtu
• Mchafu kama kilihafu/fungo/kisafu
• Dovuo mdomoni/mashavuni
• Ngecha menoni/matongo machoni
• Hali ya umaskini/unyonge/ugonjwa
• Si lolote si chochote
• Masikini hohehahe
• Si wa koleo si wa mani
• Kwake hakufuki moshi
• Si hayati si mamati/si hai si mahututi
• Hawana be wala te
• Nikawa gofu la mtu/kifefe/fremu ya mtu
• Anachungulia kaburi

Miundo ya maumbo

• Ilikuwa dhahiri shahiri kuwa angeenda jongomeo
• Nilipiga moyo konde nikampiga jeki Kwa hali na mali
• Alinitilia upendo kwani akufaaye Kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
• Nilikumbuka alivyonipakatana kuniasa
• Nilikuwa sina be wala te baada ya wazazi kwenda jongomeo
• Matumaini yangu yalifufuka pindi nilipokutana na _______________
• Machozi yalimlengalenga na kumbubujika kama maji mferejini

Kupokea methali

• Waambao waliamba _____________
• Wahenga hawakutupa ulimi wa kulazia walipoanga ______________
• Chambilecho wahenga ______________
• Wahenga hawakutoa ngebe walipokuli ________________
• Yakini, wema ____________________

Tamati

• Ndipo iliponiwia bayana kuwa ______________
• Ndipo walipofutika mtimani kwangu ukweli wa methali _______________
• Sitalifuta tukio hilo katika kumbukumbu zangu
• Tanbihi-mwalimu ana uhuru wa kuongeza mengine

Methali za Kutohadaika

Chanzo cha matatizo
Alipovunja ungo/baleghe
Alipovuka kizingiti cha lango la shule, chuo kikuu ___________ maisha yake yaliingia ufa
Alopowachagua marafiki vichwa maji/nyamafu _______________
Alianza kujipalia makaa kama chachandu pweza
Mambo yalianza kumwendea tenge/shote/shoro/mvange/msobe msobe/upogoupogo
Kufilisika – hana be wala te , hana kazi wala bazi/hana hanani, fukara fukarike
Kushikwa – kuhaha na kugwaya, kutweta na kuhema, pumzi juu juu
Alitamani dunia ipasuke na kummeza mzima mzima
Kamasi ilimtonatona puani kama matone ya mvua
Alinaswa/tiwa vituku/pingu/lishwa kalenda
Aibu – shikwa na haya/soni
Iva uso
Vunja uso
Kichwa kifuani kama kondoo
Teseka – alikula mumbi/mavi/kwata
Alifunzwa na ulimwengu usiokuwa na huruma
Kitumbua kiliingia mchanga
Alitekwa bakunja/pubazwa na
Urembo/fedha/sura/jamali

Vipokezi vya methali
Yakini ________________
Taibu __________________
Ama kweli __________________
Chambilecho wahenga ________________________
Wahenga na wahenguzi ______________________
Nakubaliana na wazee wa kale _______________________

Utekaji nyara

Mapambo
Uzuri wa siku/mtu – siku ilikucha vizuri/upepo mwanana
Umande ulimeremeta metumetu kama nyota angani
Ndege walikorokocha na kughani lahani nzuri
Nwele zake za nyufa., kiuno cha nyigu, meno ya mchele, pangika kama lulu
Sauti nyororo kama ya ninga/mwewe/kinanda/hurulaini wa peponi
Mwendo wa dalji/twiga wa savanna
Kutosikia nasaha
Juhudi zangu za kumwonya/kumnasihi ______________________
Ziligonga mwaba/paramia mwamba/ambulia pang’anda/tupwa kapuni
Udekezaji – alimwengaenga/alimlea kwa tunu na tamasha
Kumwasa motto kulikuwa jambo tukizi/nadra/dimu
Akawa haskii la mwadhini wala la mteka maji msikitini
Akatia maskio komango/nta/pamba
Kuwa sikio la kufa lisilosikia dawa/cha kuvunja ambacho hakina rubani

Methali Zinazoonya Kuhusu Tamaa na Uzuri wa Nje

Tamaa
Hamu kubwa ya kupata kitu, jambo, au hali Fulani
Visawe – uchu, ashiki, shauku, hamu, ari, nia, hanjamu, nyege, ukware, ghaidhi,
raghba

Methali za tamaa
Tamaa mbele mauti nyuma
Mkamia maji hayanywi, akiyanywa humsakama koo
Mwenye pupa hadiriki kula tamu
Mpanda farasi wawili hupasuka msaba/mwaranda
njia mbili zilimshinda fisi
Mwangata mbili moja humponyoka
Mchovya asli hachovyi mara moja
Mtaka yote huksa yote
Usiache mbachao kwa msala upitiapo

Methali za uzuri wa nje
Uzuri wa mkakasi ndanikipande cha mti
Sihadaike na rangi tamu ya chai ni sukari
Nyumba nzuri si mlango, ingia ndani
Kikulacho ki nguoni mwako
Ibilisi wa mtu ni mtu
Uzuri wa kuya ndani mabuu
Vyote viowevu si maji

Maudhui
Marafiki hadaa – ndumakuwili/mzandiki
Kutoaminiana katika ndoa
Ahadi za uongo – mchezo wa karata
Urembo ambao ni handaa

Insha ya Mjadala

Mjadala ni mazungumzo baina ya watu kuhusu mada au hoja kuu upande mmoja hupinga huku mwingine ukiunga mkono
Huhusu mazungumzo juu ya mada Fulani
Mfano:

• Maisha ya mashambani ni bora kuliko y mjini
• Teknolojia ina madhara mengi kuliko faida

Huhitaji mtahiniwa kuunga mkono hoja moja na kasha kuipinga katika aya inayofuata au kuunga mkono na baadaye kuzipinga hoja zake.
Kuna sehemu nne kuu

• mada
• utangulizi
• mwili
• tamati-kutoa kauli na ushauri

Mada huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa kulingana na swali
Utangulizi huhusu kufafanua mada na kutolea mifano
Mwili huhitaji kufafanuliwa kwa hoja
Kila hoja iwe katika aya yake
Hitimisho mtahiniwa huhitajikakutoa changamoto au ushauri

Kuna namna tatu za kuandika insha hii

• kuunga na kupinga katika aya moja
• kuunga mada mkono na baadaye kuipinga
• kuipinga mada na baadaye kuiunga mkono

Usiandike chini ya hoja sita
Toa msimamo wako kwa mwandishi
Insha hizi hutumia viunganishi vya kuongezea

• Licha ya
• Aidha
• Fauka ya
• Zaidi ya
• Pia

TEKNOLOJIA
Ni maarifa ya kisayansi yaliyowekwa katika matumizi ya vifaa, vyombo, mitambo na zana mbalimbali.
Teknolojia inaweza kutumika kwa njia ainati

• Mawasiliano
• Utafiti wa kisayansi
• Usafi na afya ya mwili
• Usafiri
• Kilimo na ufugaji
• Michezo na mashindano
• Elimu
• Biashara
• Kutalii anga za juu

Mawasiliano

Vyombo vya mawasiliano kama tarakilishi, magazeti, simu

• Hutupasha habari
• Hutuepusha na maafa
• Kuelimisha na kutumbuiza Kiingiacho mjini si haramu Kipya kinyemi kingawa kidonda

Utafiti

Wataalamu wamevumbua/wamegundua dawa za dwele
Mashine/mitambona vyombo vya kurahisisha kazi
Mitambo ya kuchunguza hali ya anga
Dawa za kuzuia mimba
Ukiona vyaelea vimeundwa

Elimu

Vyombo na vifaa vingi hutumiwa shuleni
Mitambo na vifaa vya utafiti
Matumizi ya mitandao
Kanda za video
Elimu ni bahari
Elimu haitekeki

Usalama

Zana za vita hutumiwa hutulinda dhidi ya maadui
Donge nono hupatikana baada ya kuuza vifaa
Nyua za umeme na ving’ora
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari

Kilimo na ufugaji

Pembejeo-mbegu, mbolea, dawa
Mashine za kulimia, kunyunyuzia maji
Mashine za kukama ng’ombe
Ukiona vyaelea vimeundwa
Tembe na tembe huwa mkate

Usafiri

Vyombo vya usafiri vya majini, angani na nchi kavu
Huenda kwa kasi ya umeme
Huokoa wakati
Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo

Madhara ya teknolojia

• Huwafanya watu kuwa wazembe Chanzo cha mmomonyoko wa maadili
• Hufundisha ulevi, ulanguzi wa dawa za kulevya
• Hulemaza akili na fikira
• Huchangia kutupilia mbali kwa tamaduni na desturi

Tamati

• Ningependa kuwajuza kuwa ______________________
• Ningeomba sote tupinge kwa jino na ukucha _______________________
• Tusiwe kama chachandu kwa kujipalia makaa kwa ___________________________

Insha ya Masimulizi

Michezo

Michezo ni jumla ya shughuli za kujifurahisha, kujichangamsha,kujiburudisha au kupoteza wakati
Kuna michezo ainati kama vile

• Kandanda
• Mpira wa vikapu
• Voliboli
• Naga
• Magongo
• Riadha
• Sarakasi/viroja

Riadha

Ni jumla ya michezo ya viungo vya mwili kama kukimbia, kuruka
Kuna mbio za masafa

• Mafupi-mita 100, 200, 400
• Kadiri-mita 800, 1500, 3000
• Marefu-5000, 10,000, na mbio za nyika
• Kuruka viunzi na maji
• Kutupa tufe/kijisahani
• Kubururana kwa kamba

Msamiati

• Tufe
• Mzingo
• Nusu mzingo
• Vijiti
• Safu za kukimbilia
• Wapasua hewa

Kandanda/kambumbu/soka /gozi/mpira wa miguu

• Hushirikisha timu mbili
• Mavazi ya wachezaji-jezi, kaptura, soksi
• Viatu vya wachezaji-ndaruga, njumu
• Uwanja wa michezo unaitwa uga/uchanjaa
• Golikipa-mlinda lango/ mdakaji/mnyakati
• Wachezaji wa ngome-walinzi/defense
• Wachezaji wa kiungo
• Kipindi cha lala salama/cha pili
• Kadi ya manjano/nyekundu
• Mshindi/mshinde
• Mchuano/kinyang’anyiro/kindumbwendumbwe

Mapambo na maumbo

• Uwanja/uga/uchanjaa ulijaa/ulifurika
• Jiwe lisingeanguka ardhini
• Shangwe, vifijo, vigelegele na nderemo vilihinikiza hewani
• Ngome yao ilikuwa dhabiti mithili ya ukuta uliojengwa kwa zege
• Wapasua hewa walihema na kutweta
• Mithili ya mbwa aliyenusurika kumezwa na chatu
• Kikorombwe cha mwisho kilipopulizwa
• Alipiga zinga kimo
• Cha mbuzi hadi ______________
• Nilimvisha kanzu/kupiga tobwe
• Mpira ulianza kwa kasi ya umeme
• Mpira uludanadana wavuni

Methali

• Hayawi hayawi huwa
• Hauchi hauchi unakucha
• Kutangulia si kufika
• Subira huvuta heri

Mada

• KINYANG’ANYIRO CHA KUKATA NA SHOKA
• MECHI YA KUSISIMUA
• KIPUTA CHA KIPEKEE
• MECHI YA KUKUMBUKWA

Mikasa

Mikasa ni matukio au mambo ya kutisha yanayotokea kwa ghafal pasi ya kutarajiwa
Matukio haya yanaweza kuleta maafa, masaibu na majonzi
Mikasa hii inaweza kuwa ya moto, milipuko ya bomu, zilizala, mafuriko, ajali barabarani, mlipuko wa volkano na maporomoko ya ardhi
Yanayopaswa kuzingatiwa kwa masimulizi ni

• Wakati wa mkasa
• Mahali pa tukio
• Jinsi tukio lilivyotokea
• Kushiriki kwa msimulizi
• Shughuli za uokozi

Msamiati na mapambo

Kelele-mayowe, kamsa, usiahi
Mlipuko-mfyatuko, mwatuko, mshindo, ngurumo
Vilio-shake, kusinana, kikweukweu, kwikwikwi, mayowr
Mochari-makafani, ufuoni,
Ving’ora vya ambulensi na makarandinga
Vifusi na majivu katika majengo
Manusura na majeruhi
Huduma ya dharura
Vukuto la moto
Helikopta za kijeshi na shirika la msalaba mwekundu
Mabehewa(mabogi) yalitapakaa
Gari liliyumba yumba/lilipiga danadana
Taharuki na hekaheka
Kuuputa moto kwa matagaa
Cheche za moto zilitanda kama fataki
Paparazi walizuka/walitokea ghafla bin vu kama mizuka
Upepo ulivuma kwa ghamidha na ghadhabu
Waja walipiga mbizi ili kujinusuru
Gari liligeuzwa likawa ganda tu
Ngeu ilitapakaa na kuzagaa kote
Mizigo ilfyatuka na kuwalenga wapiti njia
Ving’ora vilihinikiza/vilitanda/vilishamiri kote
Mavundevunde ya moshi yalitanda kote
Joto lilisambaa na kuzagaa
Vilikuwa vilio si vilio, majonzi si majonzi, zogo si zogo

Methali

• Chelewa chelewa utampata mwana si wako
• Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
• Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
• Mbiu ya mgambo ikilia kuna jambo
• Umoja ni nguvu utengano ni udhaifu
• Juhudi si pato

Vihisishi vya majuto na mshangao

La haula la kwata !
Yarabi maskini!
Ole wangu!
Masaalale!
Lo!

Uasidizi

Walitupiga jeki
Niliwatilia upendo
Niliwapa mkono
Tulisaidiana kama kiko na digali
Maiti na jeneza
Kinu na mchi

Tamati
Hakika, hakuna msiba usiokuwa na mwenziwe
Daima dawamu sitalisahautukio hilo
Matukio hayo hayatafutika kutoka tafakulini mwangu
Ninapokumbuka kisa hicho, machozi hunitiririka njia mbilimbili

Huzuni

Insha humhitaji kuelezea kisa kinachoonyesha huzuni na woga

Insha nyingi huhusu mikasa au masaibu kwa watu
Visawe vya mikasa ni balaa, janga , balaa, baa, visanga
Mikasa yote hutokea kama ajali

• Zilizala
• Ajali barabarani au angani
• Mlipuko wa bomu
• Ukame
• Maporomoko ya ardhi
• Moto Ugaidi

Yanayozingatiwa mahali pa mkasa

• Jinsi tukio lilivyotukia
• Kushiriki kwako
• Uchunguzi na matokeo

Tanbihi : mahali pa tukio – hotelini , mwituni, ofisini, kituo cha mafuta, kiwandani,
shuleni, dukakuu, barabarani, ufuoni mwa bahari, chumba cha maabara

Mapambo
Mlipuko – mfyatuko, mwatuko, mngurumo,
Ulikuwa mlipuko wa kuatua moyo/mtima, kushtua, kuogofya, kutisha
Ulikuwa mlipuko wa jiko la gesi/umeme/gari/bomba la mafuta
Kelele: usiahi, unyonge, kamsa, ukwezi, mayowe, ukwenje
Vilio vya –kusinasina, cha shake, kikweukweu kwikwikwi
Iwapo ni bomu, moto, ajali ya ndege
Moto ulirindima na kutatarisha majengo
Mabiwi/mashungi ya moto
Mavunde/mawingu ya moshi yalitanda kote
Vukuto la moto liliongezeka badala ya upepo kuvuma kwa hasira/ghamidha/hamaki/ghadhabu
Nilijitoma ndani ya nyumba kuwanusuru
Nahodha hodari haogopi moto
Kwa muda wa bana banua sehemu ile ikawa kama tanuri/joko/jehanamu
Jingo hilo liligeuzwa na kuwa majivu
Moto/nari ilifakamia majengo kama nzige wavamiavyo shamba la mihigo
Muda si muda, muda kiduchu, kutia na kutoa, fumbo fumbua,bana banua, kuku
kumeza
Punje paka kunawia mate, punda kunawia mavumbi,
Wengine walichomeka kiasi cha kutotambulika
Vilio vilinywea na sauti kuwapwelea
Tulipirikana na kupitana katika juhudi/hekaheka/pilikapilika za kuuputa moto
kuwaokoa wahasiriwa
Huzuni

Mikasa kwa jumla
Milio ya ving’ora vya makaradinga ya polisi, ambulensi, magari ya zima moto _____ tanda/tamalaki/tawala anga
Manusura/mahututi/majeruhi walipelekwa hospitalini/zahanatini
Walipewa hudum ya kwanza/ya dharura
Wafu walipelekwa mochari/ufuoni/makafari
Paparazi walizuka kama mizuka na kupeperusha picha sawia na matukio
Wanahabari walitangaza matukio ya mkasa redioni/runingani/magazetini
Wengine walisali/walipiga dua zisizoeleweka
Kwa nyota ya jaha/bahati ya mtende/kwa sudi wasamaria wema msalaba mwekundu wanajeshi zimamoto wakasaidia kuokoa
Basi lilipiga danadana na kuanguka bondeni ziwani/baharini
Tulifanya wanguwangu/himahima/chapu chapu/yosa yosa/ hala hala/mwendo wa arubili
Bila shaka tukio hilo halitafutika moyoni/sitalisahau daima dawamu
Niltamani ardi inimeze mzima mzima
Nilitamani kulia nikacheka nikalia
Machozi yaligoma

Methali
Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
Chelewa chelewa utampata mwana si wako
Fimbo ya mbali haiui nyoka
Heri jirani wa karibu kuliko ndugu wa mbali
Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
Mbiu ya mgambo ikilia kuna jambo
Mja hakatai wito hukataa aitiwalo
Ajali haina kinga wala kafara
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
Nahodha hodari haogopi moto

Furaha

Furaha inaweza kutokana na matukio mbalimbali kama vile

• Sherehe –harusi
• Siku ya kuzaliwa
• Mahafali
• Siku kuu ya krismasi
• Kwenda ughaibuni
• Matokeo mazuri ya mtihani

Mada
Siku ya siku
Akidi ya kufana
Sherehe ya kukata na shoka
Siku ya ndovu kumla mwanawe
Shamrashamra za
Msamiati na mapambo
Maua ya kila nui/ainati – asmini ,mawaridi afu, nangisi
Ukumbi wa mahema , jumba kubwa ,uwanja
Vipasa sauti/mikrofoni –vilihinikiza /sheheni
Muziki wa kuongoa ongoa ulitamalaki katika anga
Vyakula – mapochopocho/maakuli yaliyotishia kuangusha meza
Vinywaji vya kila jamii yalipenyeza kisirisiri
Mkalimani/mtarijumani alitafsiri haya yote
Kiume – mtanashati
Kike – mlibwede, spoti , mrembo kama mbega
Binti alikuwa mrembo mithili ya hurulaini aliyeasi/toka peponi
Alitembea kwa mwendo wa dalji/mwendo wa twiga wa savanna
Mwanaume mrefu njorinjori /mrefu kama unju/weusi kama kaniki
Udohoudoho , chipsi, bisi, kripsi
Waja walisakata rumba/dansi/tibwirika kwa miondoko
Msafara /mlolongo wa mashangingi
Walikula kiapo/yamini/vishana pete huku shangwe
Walipigana pambaja
Pofushwa na vimulimuli vya wapiga picha
Waja walijaa furifuri
Ilikuwa dhahiri shahiri kuwa ningefua dafu
Nilidamka wanguwangu kwa kuubwaga mgolole wangu na kuanza hamsini zangu
Kuche kusiche hatimaye kulikucha
Amka bukrata kichea
Niliamka asubuhi ya Mungu
Waja walisalimiana kwa furaha na farahani
Furaha sufufu ilinitinga si kidogo
Vyakula vya kunoga na kuhomolewa viliandaliwa na wapishi wajuzi
Vicheko vilipamba moto jari moja
Watu walichangamka na kukaramka kwa bashasha
Nilivalia meli zangu mpya zilizometameta kama mbalamwezi
Utamu wa malaji ungemfanya mtu kuramba viwiko vya mkono

Methali
Hauchi hauchi huwa
Hayawi hayawi huwa
Siku njema huonekana asubuhi
Baada ya dhiki, faraja
Mtu ni watu
Mgaagaa na upwa hali wali mkavu

Tashbihi
Shirikiana kama kinu na mchi, kiko na digali, soksi na kiatu
Lazima kama ibada
Kawaida kama sharia
Bidii kama mchwa ajengaye kichuguu/kishirazi/kidurusi
Bidii za msumeno ukerezao mbao
Bidii ni duduvule agatoye gogo la mti

Kumbukumbu

Kumbukumbu ni taarifa au rekodi zilizoandikwa na kuhifadhiwa
Anayeandika ni katibu au karani
Kiongozi wa mkutano huwa mwenyekiti au naibu wa mwenyekiti
Kumbukumbu ni maoni ya wote;hivyo basi katibu hafai kutoa hisia zake mwenyewe
Sehemu muhimu za kumbukumbu ni

• Mada/kichwa
• Mahudhurio
• Ajenda za mikutano
• Thibitisho

Mada/kichwa

• Huwa na jina rasmi linalotambulisha shirika, kundi, kampuni
• Huwa na tarehe, mahali na wakati(saa)
• Kichwa kindikwe kwa herufi kubwa na kupigiwa mstari
  Mfano
  KUMBUKUMBU ZA MKUTANO WA CHAMA CHA MAZINGIRA WA TAREHE 2 MEI 2010 KATIKA
  UKUMBI WA HOTELI YA MAJIMBO SAA MBILI ASUBUHI

Mahudhurio

• Huonyesha majina ya waliohudhuria, waliokosa kuhudhuria na waliotuma udhuru(sababu) ya kutohudhuria
• Huonyesha walioalikwa
• Majina ya wanajopo/wanakamati/wanachama yafuate vyeo
• Baadhi ya vyeo ni kama vile
  • Mwenyekiti au naibu mwenye kiti
  • Karani au naibu/katibu
  • Katibu mwandamizi/mratibu
  • Mhazini-anayetunza mali ya shirika au kampuni

Ajenda

• Hizi ni hoja muhimu zinazojadiliwa k.v kufunguliwa kwa mkutano
• Kusomwa kwa kumbukumbu za mkutano uliotangulia
• Hoja nyinginezo zitategemea nia ya mkutano au shirika
• Kufungwa kwa mkutano-taja anayeomba na wakati

Mapambo

• Mkutano ulifahamishwa kwamba _______________
• Ripoti ilitolewa kuwa ___________________
• Mwenyekiti aliwaarifu/aliwajuza kuwa _____________________
• Mkutano uliamua kwamba ___________________
• Walipatana kwamba __________________
• Kikao kilielezwa kuwa ____________________

Thibitisho
Sehemu hii huwa na sahihi na tarehe

Baada ya kumbukumbu kusomwa na kuthibitishwa katika mkutano unaofuata mwenyekiti na katibu hutia sahihi

Umbo la kumbukumbu

Mada:herufi kubwa
Waliohudhuria
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________

Waliotuma udhuru
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________

Wasiotuma udhuru
_____________________
_____________________

Waalikwa
_____________________
_____________________

Ajenda
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________

KUMB CCM1 1/02:

KUMB CCM 2 1/02:

Thibitisha
Mwenyekiti ________________________ (sahihi)
Tarehe ___________________________
Katibu ____________________________(sahihi)
Tarehe ___________________________

Insha ya Mazungumzo

Mazungumzo ni maongezi mahojiano au malumbano baina ya mtu na mwingine au kundi moja na jingine

Mazungumzo haya yanaweza kuwa
Poroja/soga/domo-ni mazungumzo ya kupitisha wakati
Kutafuta ujumbe maalum-hufanyika kwa njia ya mahojiano
Kumdadisi au kumwelekeza mtu-baina ya mtu aliye na tajriba na Yule anayetaka msaada

• Kila mmoja hupewa nafasi ya kuzungumza
• Mhusika mmoja asichukue nafasi kubwa
• Tumia alama za uakifishaji ainati
• Sharti pawe na hali ya kuchachawiza
• Vitendo viweze kuandikwa katika alama za mabano
• Fani za lugha zitumuke ili kuleta uhondo katika mazungumzo
• Lazima pawe na maagano au maelewano
• Tangaza msimamo iwapo ni mahojiano
• Hatua

Mada/kichwa
Huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa na kupigiwa ,mstari
Mfano

MAZUNGUMZO BAINA YA DAKTARI NA MGONJWA
Maudhui-hili ni lengo au kusudi la mazungumzo
Msamiati utategemea lengo la mazungumzo
Vitendo na ishara-haya yataandikwa katika mabano mfano: (akiketi, akilia, wakibisha, akicheka)
Alama za uakifishaji
Koloni( : )huandikwa baada ya jina au cheo cha mtu
Alama za dukuduku ( -------------)kwamba mazungumzo yanaendelea
Parandesi au mabano ()
Kubana maneno ambayo hayatasemwa
Alama ya hisi ( ! ) hutumiwa pamoja na viingizi kuonyesha hisia
Mfano: yarabi maskini!

Insha ya Maelezo au Wasifu

Hii ni insha inayotoa maelezokuhusu jambo, mahali au kitu Fulani

• Insha hii hueleza, huarifu, huburudisha au hutahadharisha
• Mwandishi asiandike chini ya hoja sita
• Tumia viunganishi unapounganisha mawazo katika aya au unapoaanza aya nyingine
• Tiririsha mawazo ili pawena mtiririko na mshikamano
• Katika tamati toa ushauri kwa makundi mbalimbali
• Mwandishi anaweza kutoa msimamo wake kuhusu hoja Fulani

FAIDA ZA ELIMU

• Elimu ni taaluma au mfuo wa mafunzo yanayofundishwa katika jamii zetu
• Elimu inazo faida anuwai
• Elimu huondoa ujinga akilini
• Mja hupata maarifa, ujuzi na hekima
• Mwanafunzi hutambua mambo tofauti
• Humakinika katika mambo ayafanyayo
• Elimu ni bahari na pia habari
• Aliyeelimika huweza kuishi na wengine
• Mtu hujiheshimu na kuheshimu wengine
• Husaidia kudumisha amani, umoja na upendo baina ya watu
• Kichango kuchangizana
• Umoja ni nguvu utengano ni udhaifu
• Ni daraja la kutuvusha katika umaskini
• Waja hutia bidii za mchwa ili kufaulu maishani
• Humwezesha mtu kuhitimu katika taaluma Fulani
• Uhawinde hutokomea kama umande nyasini wakati wa jua la asubuhi
• Hurahisisha mawasiliano Baina ya mtu mmoja na mwingine au baina ya mataifa
• Hujifunza mengi kwani kuishi kwingi kuona mengi
• Aliyesoma hutalii nchi nyingi
• Kuhifadhi siri
  Elimu humwezesha mja kusoma uumbe kutoka katika barua au arafa akiwa pekee
• Huchangia kuwepo kwa maendeleo
• Serikali hujenga shule,vyuo na miundo msingi mingineyo ya elimu
• Taasisi mbalimbali huboresha mitaala ya ufundishaji
• Hufanikisha utafiti, utumiaji wa teknolpjia mpya na mitambo mbalimbali

Elimu ni irithi

Elimu ni mali ambayo haiteki
Ni almasi inayostahili kuchibwa na mtoto yeyote mwandilifu
Zamani watu waliridhi mashamba na mifugo
Elimu ni silaha na nguzo muhimu na madhubuti

Methali

Elimu ni bahari
Elimu ni taa, gizani huzagaa
Elimu ni ali ambayo adui hawezi kuiteka
Elimu maisha si vitabu

Viunganishi na mapambo

Isitoshe, elimu ni ,ali ambayo adui hawezi _____________________
Zaidi ya hayo, humwezesha mja kuhitimu _____________________
Hata hivyo, kuna wale wanaoitumia __________________________
Aidha, limu hurahisisha mawasilia ___________________________

Nahau

Tujifunge masombo/nira/kibwebwe ili ________________________
Tujikaze kisabuni _________________________
Tusiwe pweza wa kujipalia makaa kwa kutoelimika _________________________
Tujifunge masombo mithili ya _____________________ duduvule atoboaye gogo/mchwa ajengaye kichuguu

Tamati
Ningependa kukunja jamvi kwa ____________________________
Ninapofikia tamati
Jua linapoaga mikalatusi
Ninatia kitone nikitoa lulu kuwa

Barua Rasmi

Pia huitwa barua ya kiofisi
Huandikwa kuhusu jambo rasmi
Huandikwa ili

• Kuomba nafasi ya kazi
• Kuomba nafasi za masomo shuleni au chuoni
• Maombi ya msaada kutoka kwa serikali
• Kuomba msamaha au radhi
• Malalamishi kuhusu jambo Fulani

Barua rasmi ina sehemu zufuatazo

• Anwani
• Anwani mbili – ya mwandishi na ya mwandikiwa
• Anwani ya mwandishi huandikwa tarehe
• Kianzio
  Sehemu hii huandikwa bwana (BW) au bibi (BI), Mkurugenzi mkuuu, mwalimu mkuu
  Mtajo
  Ni kichwa cha barua ambacho huashiria lengo au madhumuni kwa ufupi
  Kumbukumbu – KUMB
  Mintarafu – MINT
  Kusudi – KUS
  Kuhusu – KUH
  Yahusu – YAH
  Kichwa cha barua rasmi hupigiwa mstari
• Mwili
  Huelezea zaidi kuhusu kusudi ya barua na lengo hasa kuandika barua
  Mtahiniwa huhitajika kuelezea kuhusu Elimu yake
  Wasifukwani haambatanishi stakabadhi zozote zile
  Tanbihi
  Insha yoyote ile lazima itimize ukurasa na nusu
• Tamati/mwisho
  Humalizwa kwa
  Wako mwaminifu
  Sahihi
  Jina

Mtindo wa barua rasmi

SHULE YA MSINGI
YA LIZAR,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA,
NOVEMBA 18, 2015.

MWALIMU MKUU,
SHULE YA UPILI YA ALLIANCE,
S.L.P 2003,
KIKUYU.
Kwa Bwana/Bi – kianzo

mtajo-MINT: NAFASI YA KUJIUNGA NA KIDATO CHA KWANZA

mwili

hitimisho –
wako mwaminifu

Msamiati

Nina furaha kukuandikia __________________
Ninasikitika ninapokuandikia waraka _________________
Ningependa kuchukua fursa hii _____________
Kwa mujibu wa ilani ______________________ katika gazeti, runinga, mabango
Shule yako imetajwa na kutajika katika _________________ michezo, elimu, bidhaa bora
Shirika/kampuni imeipa kipaombela swala la _____________________
Nina nidhamu na taadhima ya hali ya juu
Vyeti vyangu pamoja na wasifu vimeambatanishwa na waraka
Nitakuwa kielelezo dhabiti kwa wenzangu
Nina talanta katika fani ya riadha _____________________
Ni matumaini yangu kuwa utaupokea waraka huu ________________________________

Barua Ya Kirafiki ama Kindugu

Huhusu kupatiana mwaliko, kujuliana hali, kufahamisha au kuarifu kuhusu jambo
Sehemu muhimu za barua hii ni

• Anwani ya mwandishi
  Huandikwa pembeni kabisa upande wa kulia sehemu ya juu
  Huwa na jina la mwandishi , mahali anakoishi, sanduku laposta na tarehe
  Kianzio
  Hudhihirisha Yule anayeandikiwa
  Hubainisha uhusiano wake na mwandishi
  Mfano
  
  • Kwa mpendwa
  • Kwa mwanangu mpendwa
  • Kwa mpenzi wangu
  • Kwa sahibu/muhibu
• Utangulizi
  Haya ni maamkizi kwa yule anayeandikiwa
  Mfano
  • Pokea salamu – sufufu, furifuri, tolatola nyingi kama nyota angani, mchanga
  • Mimi ni bugeri wa afya
  • Mzima kama chuma cha pua / ngarange za mvule
  • Nina buraha na furaha/furaha na bashasha
  • Nina imana kuwa Mola/Mkawini/Jalali
  • Nina matumaini kama tai kuwa u buheri wa afya/siha/zihi.rai
• Methali
  
  • Ama kweli/yakini/waama
  • Waraka ni nusu ya kuonana
  • Afya ni bora kuliko mali
• Mwili
  Sehemu – hii hubeba ujumbe wa mwandishi
  Wema – ninaomba unitendee fadhila/jamala
  Ninashukuru kwa wema ulionitendea
  Utiifu – ninakuhakikishia kwamba nitakuwa na utiifu, nidhamu na bidii
  Lengo au azma ya kukuandikia waraka huu ni
  Waraka huu ni kukujulisha kuwa
  Ningependa kukujuza kuwa
• Tamati
  Ningependa kutia nanga kwa kukuelezea kuwa _______________
  Kwa kuwa wasaa umenitia kumbu/muda 
  Umenipa kisogo, ningependa kutia kitone
  Ninakunja jamvi kwa msemo usemao _______________________
  Kalamu yangu inalilia wino ____________________
  Ndimi mzazi wako ____________________
  Wako wa moyoni _____________________________
  ni wako mpendwa ______________________
  Ndimi mwana wako mpendwa

Sampuli
BIDII FAULU,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA.

18-11-2015

Kwa sahibu yangu, fundi msanifu ,
Utangulizi ______________________________
Mwili
Hatima
Ni mimi wako,
Jina la mwandishi

Insha ya Hotuba

Hotuba ni maelezo yanayotolewa ili kupitisha ujumbe Fulani
Anayetoa hotuba huitwa katibu
Umati unaosikiliza huitwa hadhira
Huanza kwa mlahaka/salamu kwa kutambua vyeo kuanzia wa juu mpaka wa chini ,
sababu ya mkutano
Alama za kunukuu hutumiwa
Hotuba inaweza kuwa ya

• Mwanafunzi akihutubia shuleni
• Mwalimu
• Mwalimu mkuu wa wazazi shuleni
• Daktari au afisa wa afya
• Rais wakati wa maadhimisho ya mashujaa
• Waziri wa usala, afya na ugatuzi

Mfano wa utangulizi
“mgeni wa heshima, mkuu wa elimu gatuzini, mkaguzi wa elimu, mwenyekiti na
maafisa wa elimu na wanafunzi, hamjambo?
‘Mwalimu mkuu, naibu wa mwalimu mkuu, walimu wenzangu, viranja na wanafunzi,
sabalkheri?

Mapambo
ninazo bashasha/furaha/buraha
Nimesimama kidete/tisti/imara kama chuma
Cha pua/ngarange za mvule/kiini cha mpingo
Nitawandondolea hoja zangukuanzia utando hadi ukoko,shinani hadi kileleni
Rejelea hadhira mara kwa mara – nanyi, enyi wazazi, nasi wanafunzi

Tamati
Ningependa kutia kitone/nanga/kukunja jamvi kwa msemo usemao
Ninawamiminia shukrani tolatola/fokofoko
Kwa kutulia kama maji mtungini/maziwa kitomani
Kwa kuwa lililo na mwanzo halina budi kuwa na mwisho
Ninawatakia Baraka njema za Mualana/ninawatakia mbawazi za mkawini mbingu

Dawa za Kulevya

Ni kitu chochote kinachoathiri fahamu za mwili na afya ya mja
Mifano

• Kokeini
• Mandraksi
• Bangi
• Ganja
• Miraa au mirungi
• Tumbako

Athari za dawa za kulevya

• Kuvuruga akili
• Mtumiaji hugeuka na kuwa mkia wa mbuzi/juha/kalulu
• Kupata ujasira bandia
• Mja huwa katili
• Hujiingiza katika visanga kama wizi
• Hudhuru afya
• Mhasiriwa kama ng’onda/kimbaumbau mwiko wa pilau
• Sura huumbuka na kusawijika
• Husababisha saratani
• Kuenea kwa magonjwa ya zinaa

Methali
Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari

utovu wa nidhamu
watumiaji husheheni matusi
hutabawali kadamnasi
kuvalia mavazi mafupi

Methali
mwacha mila ni mtumwa
usiache mbachao kwa msala upitao
kuzorota kwa uchumi
mtu binafsi hutumia njenje zote
watoto hawatimiziwi mahitaji
filisha mja- akabaki hana mbele wala nyuma
uchumi wa nchi huzorotabaada ya kutumia pesa kuwatibu wahasiriwa
husababisha uraibu
huleta wizi
husababisha uzembe
madereva kusababisha ajali
kupata magonjwa

• Inclined planes.
• Single fixed pulley.

Inclined Planes.

These are tools that make work easier by increasing the effort distance.

Examples of inclined planes.

• Screw
• Screw driver.
• A road winding up a hill.
• Ladder.
• Staircase, escalators, ramps.
• Wedge

Single Fixed Pulley.

These are simple tools that make work easier by changing the direction of the force.
They are used to lift or raise load on higher surfaces.

A rope or string is put along the groove. The groove prevents the rope from slipping off.

Properties of a single fixed pulley.

• Makes work easier by changing the direction of the force.
• The effort distance and the load distance are equal.
• The effort force and load force move in opposite direction.
• The effort force and load force are equal

Uses of pulleys

1. Hoisting the flag.
2. To load or offload cargo at the ports.
3. Used in cranes

• Energy Transformation.
• Energy Conservation
  • Ways of conserving energy
  • Advantages of Renewable Energy

Energy Transformation.

The law of energy conservation statesthat, energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed to other forms of energy.

Energy Conservation.

Energy conservation means protecting, preserving, restoring and managing energy resources.

Ways of Conserving of Energy.

1. Using energy sparingly by:
   1. Switching bulbs off when not needed.
   2. Using public transport instead of private vehicle.
   3. Using bicycles or walking for short distance.
   4. Using vehicles with low fuel consumption.
   5. Using thermosflask and hot pots to keep food hot.
   6. Using energy saving bulbs.
2. Using energy efficient devices.
   1. Modern jiko/improvised jiko
   2. Clay cookers.
3. Using renewable forms of energy.
   Renewable forms of energy refers to forms that are inexhaustible like wind, water, sunlight, food, biogas and forests.
   Non-renewable sources of energy are those that can get exhausted when use like petrol, diesel, kerosene, natural gas

Advantages of Renewable Energy.

• Are cheap.
• Do not pollute the environment.
• Help to conserve non renewable forms of energy.
• Readily available and in abundance.

• Nutritional requirements for special groups
  • Nutritional Needs For a Pregnant or Expectant Mother
  • Nutritional Needs of Lactating or Breastfeeding Mother.
  • Nutritional Needs of Infants
  • Weaning
• Food poisoning

Nutritional Requirements For Special Groups

Nutritional Needs For A Pregnant Or Expectant Mother

• Should be rich in proteins for proper growth of baby.
• Should have carbohydratesfor properfunctioning of baby's organs and providing the mother with enough energy.
• Should be rich in vitamin D and calcium for strong bones and teeth of the baby and formation of blood cells.
• Should be rich in irons for healthy blood of the mother and foetus
• Should have fibres to improve the mother's digeston and prevention of constipation
• Should have plenty of fluids for good production of milk and maintenance of properlevel of amniotic fluid.

Nutritional Needs of Lactating Or Breastfeeding Mother.

• Should be rich in irons to replace the blood lost during birth.
• Should be rich in calcium, magnesium and phosphorus for recovery and strengthening of teeth and bones.
• Should have vitamins to protect the mother against infection.

Nutritional Needs of Infants

Infants are children below 2years.

The best food for them is breast milk as it is wholesome ie it contains all the nutrients required by the body.

Advantages of breast milk

• It is wholesome.
• It has colostrum that gives natural immunity.
• It is readily available in the right form and right temperature.
• It is free from diseases.
• It does not cause allergies.
• It is easy to digest.
• It strengthens mother-child bond.

Advantages of bottle feeding.

• Convenient when the mother has little or no milk.
• Someone else can feed the baby when the motheris away.
• Children born to HIV/AIDS mother cannot be infected through bottled milk.

Disadvantages of bottle feeding.

• Might lack some nutrients.
• Lacks colostrum.
• Not readily available.
• Children might develop allergies.
• Should have extra fluids for production of milk.

Weaning.

This is the gradual introduction of semi solids foods to an infant. It is done at the age of 4-6months. Breast feeding should continue upto 2 years. Introduce one food item at a time.

Food Poisoning.

This is an illness of the stomach caused by eating foods containing harmful substances.

Agents of food poisoning.

• Micro-organism.
• Chemicals.

Symptoms of food poisoning.

• Violent vomiting.
• Severe headache.
• Diarrhoea.
• Fever.
• Feeling weak and dizzy.
• Severe abdominal pain.
• Nausea
• Muscle paralysis.
• Constipation.

Methods of prevention food poisoning.

• Proper storage of food to avoid contamination.
• Proper preservation of food.
• Propersanitation and disposal of garbage.
• Hygienic handling of food.
• Proper cooking of food.
• Thourough washing of hands before handling food.
• Avoid buying damaged fruits and canned foods.
• Proper washing of utensils and dishes used for food

• The Meaning and Major Components of Environment
• The Meaning and Effects of Soil Pollution.
  • Effects of Soil Pollution
  • Methods of Soil Conservation
• Air Pollution
  • Major Causes of Air Pollution
  • Effects of Air pollution on Living and Non-living things
  • Ways of controlling air pollution

The Meaning and Major Components of Environment

Environment describes all the things and conditions that make up our surroundings on earth.

The major natural components of environment consist of living things and non-living things i.e. Water, Soil, Air, Plants and Animals

Water

Water is a very important component of the environment in that all living things depend on water. Water forms part of the environment for fish as fish get oxygen from the water and feed on water plants or some other fish found in the water. All other living things that live in water get oxygen from the water.

Other water sources found in the environment is a dependent for other living things on the land e.g. animals get water from rivers, lakes, rain and dams. People also use rain water for domestic purposes. They harvest the water using tanks and drums. They also
fetch water from rivers and wells.

Without water plants can not grow well. We already know that the conditions necessary for germination are: water, air and warmth. During photosynthesis, plants use water to make their own food.

Soil

Another important component of environment is soil which makes the homes of some small animals. Plants get nutrients from the soil so as they can grow well, get water from the soil through absorption and are finally held by the soil. Also soil is important to
animals in that they feed on plants that grow on the soil e.g. zebra, cows and goats. They are called herbivorous because they feed on green plants and vegetable materials that grow on the soil. Human beings cultivate the soil to produce food crops that they eat.

Many small animals live in the soil like ants, termites, moles, groundhogs and some bacteria which decompose dead plant and animal materials.

Air

One of the major components of the environment is air which all living things cannot survive without. We already know that air is a composition of many gases; oxygen which makes 21% of the air is needed for respiration.

Note that living things breath in oxygen and those animals that live in water get their oxygen from the dissolved oxygen in the water. Carbon dioxide in air is 0.03% which is used by plants in making their own food in presence of sunlight, a process called
photosynthesis. These plants give out carbon dioxide. It is from the atmosphere where the plants and animals on the land get their oxygen and those in water get theirs in the water.

Animals take in oxygen through breathing and give out carbon dioxide. On the other hand plants take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and give out oxygen. Leguminous plants e.g. beans, ground nuts and peas use nitrogen which makes 78% part
of the air to make proteins.

Plants

Another major component of the environment is plants. Trees provide shelter for some animals such as monkeys and insects. Animals get their food from plants either directly or indirectly. Plants do also hold soil together thus preventing soil erosion.
Plants give out oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis and animals take in oxygen during breathing. Dead plants decay and decompose releasing nutrients to the soil making it fertile.

Animals

Some animals help in pollination such as bees and butterflies. They help in cross pollination of flowers in plants. Animals also help in seed dispersal. Waste matters from animals add nutrients to the plants and this way soil becomes fertile. Small animals like
bacteria decompose materials in the environment to release nutrients to the environment. Animal breath out carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which in turn is used by plants to make food.

The Meaning and Effects of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is the presence of substances that affect the quality of the soil also known as land pollution. It affects the usual use of soil and is dangerous to the health of human beings, other animals and plants. In other words, soil pollution means making soil impure. We say that when certain substances are present in the soil they pollute it. Substances that make soil or other components of the environment impure are called pollutants (contaminant). Some of examples of such pollutants are plastics, polythene papers, fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides.

NB: Pesticides kill pests while herbicides kill weeds.

If oil is spilled on the soil it pollutes it. The following are some causes of soil pollution:

• Domestic waste disposal improperly
• Improper disposal of raw industrial waste
• Excess use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticidesin the activities of poor agriculture
• Spilling oil on the soil
• Mining activities destroysthe soil structure and leave excessminerals on the top soil.

Effects of soil pollution

When soil is polluted, its fertility is affected and this too affects the soil productivity leading to the living components of the environment i.e. plants and animals getting affected as well.

Effects of soil pollution on plants

Dumping

Most materials such as plastics and polythene papers do not decay. If such materials are not properly dumped, they may cause damage to leaves and stems of plants when deposited on the soil as they decay. Through this way, they interfere with growth of the plants as follows:

• Absorption of water and mineral salts.
• Growth of roots of the plants since they block the roots.
• Air circulation in the soil.

Negative Effects of Soil Pollution on Animals.

Soil being homes of many small animals, such as worms, ants and termites, they are negative affected when soil is affected (polluted). Some small animals like bacteria make soil to be rich by decomposing dead vegetable and animal materials. Thisis the way humus is added into the soil making it more productive. Other small animals like earthworms and millipedes dig in the soil and this allows air and water circulation in the soil. The improved soil aeration and drainage of the soil allows the roots of the plants to penetrate into the soil easily.

The presence of oil, chemicals in the soil such as herbicides and pesticides and other harmful pollutants make it difficult for the small animals to survive and when they die the soil losesits quality and lowers productivity.

NB: Small animals in the soil improve soil air aeration and drainage.

Methods of Soil Conservation.

Animals and plants depend on soil. Plants grow on the soil while animals feed on the plants hence they need to conserve soil. To conserve soil means to protect it from losing its natural properties and productivity. There are various methods of conserving soil. This section briefly discusses these methods.

Table 3.1: Summary of the main methods used in soil conservation

Methods used in soil Conservation

1. Control use of agricultural chemicals
   Agricultural chemicals include the following: fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. If used uncontrollably they can lead to soil pollution and even water pollution. Their use can also be harmful to crops and those who consume the crop which include animals and human beings.
   Farmers should strictly follow the manufacturer’s instructions while using the agricultural chemicals. The instructions which come with agricultural chemicals clearly advise on the following:
   • Type of the chemical to use.
   • Purpose of the chemical.
   • Direction of usei.e. the amount to use and mode of application.
   • Precautionary measures to observe.
2. Ensuring proper disposal of waste
   A lot of waste is produced by domestic and industries. Both wastes can be harmful or useful. So that soil is not polluted by these wastes it is important to have good ways of disposing them. This is called waste management.
   1. Domestic Waste
      Domestic waste means the garbage people discard from their homes. This may be of organic refuse or inorganic refuse.
      
      Organic refuse: This refers to those that can rot and includes food remains, vegetables, and fruit peelings.
      
      Inorganic refuse: This does not rot and some may take long time to decay.
      Examples of such are plastics, broken glasses, metal parts and cans. Domestic
      waste should not be dumped on the soil surface.
      
      Methods of disposing domestic waste
      Converting waste into compost manure
      A compost pit should be dug at home for all garbage that can rot e.g. food leftovers. This can be made into compost manure
      
      Using local authority service
      Waste in urban areasis deposited into the garbage bins provided by the local authorities who arrange for its collection and thereafter proper disposal.
      Table 3.2:common methods of waste disposal
      

      Method	Description
      Incinerator	this is burning the inorganic refuse at very high temperatures in a machine
      Recycling	This is the most effective method. It involve collecting waste e.g. papers, plastics, broken glasses and food cans, treating them with chemicals and reusing them to make more of the same products
      Depositing in pit latrines	Inorganic waste should be thrown into a pit latrine or buried deep in the soil. Also it can be burnt in an improvised incinerator as shown below.
      Reusing	Reusing means using an item more then once or for a different function from the one it was meant for at the beginning. Many such as cooking fat and oils, honey and jam are packed in reusable jars and cans. These can be used at home to store other products e.g. salt, sugar or small foods. Honey jars can be used as drinking glasses.

   2. Industrial Waste
      A lot of waste is produced in the industries. Such wastes include oil, contaminated acids and metal waste. Water is contaminated with chemicals, waste rubbers and waste papers. Some of these chemicals are not only hazardous to the soil but to the living component sin the environment.
      

      Method	Description
      On-site treatment	This is where waste is treated harmless at an industry at the point where it is produced. This in turn reduces the danger of polluting the environment during the transportation process to the point where it is appropriate to be disposed.
      Reusing	Some industries use some products more than once or for different function from the initially meant for e.g. commercial industries, the solvent they use such as petrol to dry clean garments is not thrown away but filtered and reused.
      Recycling	Companies that make bottles do not throw broken bottles away but recycle them to make new ones. There are other companies that buy waste paper and recycle them to make tissues e.g. toilet rolls, facial tissues and serviettes.
      Waste Exchange Programme	One industry may produce waste that can or may be needed by another industry for its raw materials. This can be considered as useful waste. To explain this lets look at furniture manufacturer where the saw dust is produced and wood shaving as waste products. These can be used by a company that manufactures papers.
      Treating hazardous waste	This is where the new methods are used to treat hazardous waste to make them non-hazardous. Harmful pollutants are destroyed so that they do not pose any danger to the environment.
      Substituting raw materials	This is the process where the raw materials that produce harmful wastes are replaced with other that produces less harmful waste.
      Changing Manufacturing process	A process or stage which produces waste during the manufacturing process may be changed or eliminated so that the waste is no longer produced.
      Incineration	This is the process of burning waste using machines such as incerators and furnaces.
      Reducing its generation	This is the best method of reducing waste. It involves simply preventing waste generation.
      Government regulations	In this, government has put in place laws to control the disposal of waste. Such control aims at preventing illegal dumping of harmful waste.

3. Avoid burning vegetable cover
   When we want to clearland for farming, we should slash or uproot the unwanted vegetations but not burning them. This is because cleared vegetation left to rot increase humus and adds nutrients to the soil.
   
   NB: Vegetation cover guards soil against exposure to the agents of soil erosion.
   
   When we burn vegetation, we kill the living organisms in the soil and no humus goes into the soil. Vegetation cover also prevents soil from agents of soil erosion such as wind, water and animals.
4. Mulching
   This is covering the soil with dead plant materials such as dry grass and leaves. This prevents excessloss of water from the soil through evaporation. This also reduces splash erosion. The mulch decays afterwards and adds humus to the soil.
5. Planting ground cover
   It is advisable to plant ground coversince land should not be left bear. Ground cover may include ground cover crops that spread out overthe soil surface and cover it. Examples of such cover crops include grass and sweet potatoes. These crops or plants hold the soil firmly with their roots helping or preventing the soil from being carried away by agents of soil erosion such as wind and rain. Cover crops also trap soil as water flows through the garden thus conserving soil.
6. Terracing
   Terraces dug along the contours on the slopes reduce the speed of run-off water. This reduces soil erosion and this way soil is conserved.
7. Planting trees
   Planting of trees can be either afforestation or re-afforestation.
8. Afforestation
   This is planting of trees in areas where none has been planted.
9. Re-afforestation
   This is planting trees where forests have been cleared. Trees are important in preserving soil:
   
   • Reduce wind erosion by breaking the wind
   • The roots hold soil particlesfirmly together. This helps the soil from being carried away by agents of soil erosion.
   • They provide shade thus reducing the amount of water evaporation.
   • They reduce the speed of running water. This reduces the strength of water to erode the soil.
   • The leaves fall off and decompose thus increasing the amount of humus in the soil.
10. Contour farming
    In this crops are planted along the contours on ridges. This helps reduce soil erosion thus conserving the soil.
11. Building gabions
    As already known, gulley erosion where running waterforms V or U - shaped channels. These gullies can be blocked by building structures called gabions across them. Gabions are heavy boxes made of wire mesh that are filled with stones. As water flows through the gabion, soil is trapped thus reducing soil erosion and repairs the soil structure.
12. Proper stocking or controlled grazing
    Farmers should keep livestock that a piece of land can hold. This is called proper stocking which leads to soil conservation. When animals overgraze they uproot the vegetable cover e.g. grass. This way the soil becomes exposed to agents of soil erosion such as wind and water.

Air Pollution

Air is an important component of the environment. Pure air is a mixture of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.97% rare gases, water vapour, and dust particles. Presence of harmful substances in the air is called air pollution. The substances are called pollutants. Pollutants endanger human health and also affect other living components in the environment i.e. plants and animals. Others which arte indirectly affected by air pollution are water and soil.

Major causes of air of Pollution

1. Tobacco smoking
   This is one of the major forms of air pollution. It is normally smoked as cigarettes. In addiction to nicotine and tar, tobacco contains carbon monoxide as well which is a highly poisonous gas as it interferes with the ability of the blood to transport oxygen to the body organs. Smoke from cigarettes does not only affect the active smoker but also the passive smokeri.e. any one who inhales the cigarette smoke (polluted air) unintentionally.
2. Burning tyres and plastic materials
   The combustion of tyres and plastic materials produces harmful emissions and poisonous gases and especially when they do not completely burn. Incomplete combustion produces gases such as carbon monoxide which poses threat to humans health and to the survival of animals and plants. Similarly, carbon dioxide is a product of incomplete combustion. As we already know the normal carbon dioxide in the air is 0.03% excess carbon dioxide in the air as pollutant. Other pollutants from combustion are tiny particles of smoke and soot.
   
   Rubber and plastics when burnt produces black sooty flame and emits smoke that makes the air smoggy and also emits a foul smell. Charcoal burning is also a threatto the environment
3. Emission of Gases from Vehicle Exhaust
   Vehicles use fuels like petrol and diesel to run. The combustion of these fuels in the engine of the vehicles produces harmful gases e.g. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other gases. These gases produced by vehicles contain poisonous gases then contribute to pollution of the air. Exhaust gases from vehicles thus contribute to pollution of air and especially in cities and big towns where traffic is heavy.
   
   Another harmful substance that may be contained in burning fuels is lead which is dangerousto human health.
4. Spraying Farm Chemicals
   Agricultural or otherwise farm chemicals include the following: Herbicides, Acaricides and Pesticides
   
   Farm chemicals are dissolved in water and sprayed to either crops or animals using a sprayer. As spraying farm chemical is done, wind blows some of the chemicals thus polluting the air. The person spraying the chemicals should take the following precaution measures to avoid inhaling the chemicals:
   
   • Wearing protective clothessuch as gas mask, gloves and protective coats.
   • Spraying in the same direction the wind is blowing to and not against the wind.
5. Aerosol sprays
   These are packed in cans or other containersfrom which liquid is forced out in form of a fine mist. The perfume or pesticide is dissolved in solvent which remains in the atmosphere after spraying and pollutes it. The solvent may contain harmful chemical substances which interfere with the ozone layer.
   
   NB: Ozone is a gasin the upper part of the atmosphere. It forms a protective blanket known as the ozone layer which protects the earth from harmful rays from the sun. Harmful gases result in tuning of the ozone layer. When this is depleted, the survival of human being, animals and plants is at a threat.
6. Industrial Waste Gases
   Most industries release waste gases into the air which may be harmful. Some of these industries produce excess carbon dioxide which can pollute the air. Some otherindustries produce a gas called sulphur dioxide which is also harmful. Other industries too produce dust and small particles which are harmful. These waste industrial gases must be treated so that they are made safe.

Effects of Air Pollution on Living Things and Non-Living Things

Polluted air is a threat to human, animals and plant life. Also it is dangerous to nonliving components of the environment e.g. water and soil. It corrodes materials such as corrugated iron sheets and marble.

1. Effects of air pollution on living things

   1. Effects of air pollution on plants
      In order to grow healthy, plants need clean air. Polluted air affects plants in the following ways:
      • Leaves are covered with dust particle and thus blocking the sunlight and so affecting photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their own food. Soot and dust block the stomata this may affects plants.
      • Some waste gases such as sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form acidic solutions which damage leaves of plants. Presence of these gases in the air could also lead to formation of acid rain which make the soil to be acidic thus affecting the availability of nutrients to plants. High acidity on the soil may interfere with the survival of organisms that are very important to plants growth. When absorbed through roots, acid rain interferes with proper development of plant and it may wither and die. When deposited in water sources like pond, lakes and oceans, water plants that feed on water animals are affected.
   2. Effects of air pollution on animals
      Air pollution is a threat to humans, domestic and wild animals through the following ways:
      • Causes respiratory problems. When animals inhale dust and other harmful gases, they can develop respiratory such as coughing and sneezing which may result to respiratory diseases.
      • May cause allergies resulting in coughing, sneezing, irritation of eyes and breathing problems.
      • When acid rain gets deposited into water sources like lakes, ponds, and oceans, water animals e.g. fish are affected.

2. Effects of air pollution on non living things

   • Sulphur and carbon dioxide are among gases that cause air pollution when dissolved in the rain water. They form acid rain which corrodes metals such as corrugated iron sheets and stones like marble.
   • Acid rain causes weathering of rocks.
   • The view of environment is also destroyed by smoke and smog which are a mixture of gas particles.
   • Smog destroys materials made of rubber too.
   • Dust particles soil our clothes and settle on surface of tables, window sills and furniture thus making then dirty.

Ways of Controlling Air Pollution

Air pollution is controlled in several ways: These include;

• Avoiding smoking cigarettes
• NOT burning tyres and plastic materials

Table 3.4: Air Pollution Control Measures

• Hard and soft water.
  • Advantages of hard water.
  • Disadvantages of hard water.
  • Advantages of soft water.
  • Disadvantages of soft water.
  • Types of water hardness.

Hard and soft water.

Hard water is water which contains dissolved salts ie magnesium and calcium. Mainly from sea,
oceans, boreholes, lakes and dams.

Soft water is water with no or little dissolved salt in it. Mainly rain water.

Advantages of hard water.

• Contains dissolved minerals which are good for our health.
• It has a good taste to drink.
• It is good in brewing industry.

Disadvantages of hard water.

• Wastes a lot of soap because it does not lather easily.
• It discolours teeth when drank.
• It stains clothes.
• It causes clogging and blocking of pipes.
• It forms scales or fur on boilers and hot water pipes.
• Wastes a lot of time and energy during laundry.

Advantages of soft water.

• Does not stains teeth.
• Best in laundry.

Disadvantages of soft water.

• Does not have a good taste.
• Has no minerals required by the body.

Types of water hardness.

There are two types of water hardness, namely;

• Temporary water hardness.
• Permanent water hardness.

Temporary water hardness can be removed by boiling or distillation. Permanent water hardness can be removed by adding chemicals.

NB: The process of removing the dissolved minerals from hard water is called softening.

• Adaptations of animals to their environment
  • Feeding habitats in mammals.
  • Feeding adaptations in birds
• Adaptations of Animals to Movement.
  • Adaptations to Flying.
  • Adaptations to Swimming
  • Adaptations to Hopping and Leaping.
• Signs of Ill Health in Livestock.
  • Effects of Livestock Diseases.

Adaptations of Animals to their Environment

Feeding Habitats in Mammals.

Herbivores.

These are mammals that feed on plants eg cow, buffalo, antelopes, elephants etc

They are classified into two, namely;

• Grazers- They feed on grass eg cattle, buffalo, hippopotamus
• Browers- They feed on twigs and leaves eg antelopes, girraffes, goats

Carnivores.

These are mammals that feeds on flesh only. They include; lions, dogs, cats, leopard, etc

Adaptations of carnivores.

1. They have sharp and pointed incisiors for catching and holding their prey.
2. They have long pointed and strong canines for tearing off pieces of flesh from bone, they also penetrate flesh, holding and killing the prey.
3. They have ridged, flattened premolars and molars which fit well into each, saw like on both jaws for crushing bones and flesh into small portions.
4. They have strong scissor like carnassial teeth on both jaws for slicing into flesh and cracking bones.
5. They have well spaced teeth to prevent flesh from getting stuck between teeth.

Feeding Adaptations in Birds.

Grain eaters.

These are birds which feeds on grains or seeds.
They include; chicken, doves, Turkey, pigeons,Weaver bird and quelea birds. They have a strong, short, straight, thick, blunt and cone shaped beaks for picking grains.
Their claws are adapted to scratching.

Flesh eaters.

They are know us birds of prey.
They include Hawks, eagles, kites and falcons
They have short, thick, sharp and hooked(curved) beaks for cutting and tearing flesh.
They have a sharp eyesight for spotting their prey from far.
They have strong,sharp and curved claws called talons for holding and tearing their prey.

Nectar feeders.

They feed on nectars.
Examples include; sunbird and humming bird.
They have a long slender and slight curved beak for sucking nectarsfrom a flower.

Filter feeders.

These birds filters their foods from mud.
They include; ducks, sea gulls, swans, geese, pelican and flamingo.
They have a flat, broad, strong and serrated (v-shaped) beaksfor sieving or filtering their foods
Their feet are webbed.

Adaptations of Animals to Movement.

Reasons for movement.

1. To search for food (prey).
2. To search for shelter.
3. To escape from predators.
4. To search for favouble climatic condition.
5. To seek mates for reproduction.

Adaptations to Flying.

1. They have wings which has feathers to increase surface area for flapping against air.
2. They have hollow bones to make themlight so that they can float on air
3. They have a streamlined bodiesto enable them move quickly, smoothly and easily through air.

Adaptations to Swimming

1. They have fins(pelvic, pectoral, caudal, dorsal and anal fins) which help them to move in water.
2. They have swim bladder (air bladder) which help them to control their depth during swimming.
3. They have webbed feet which act as oarsfor propelling themin water.
4. They have streamlined body which help them to move smoothely in water.
5. They have scales pointing backwards and covered with slimy substance to minimise waterresistance

Adaptations to Hopping and Leaping.

They have a powerful hind legs to enable them move forward. Some have a
short fore legs and strong hind eg kangaroo. Some also have tails for balancing.
They include; amphibians, grasshopper, locust and kangaroos.

Signs of Ill Health in Livestock.

• Stunted or retarded growth.
• Loss of weight.
• Reduced yields.
• Rough coat.
• Coughing.
• Blood or worms in stool.
• Inactive.

Effects of Livestock Diseases.

• Lowers yields.
• Lowers quality of the product.
• Diseases can be passed to human being.
• Can cause death to animals

• Adaptations of plants to their environment.
  • Plants adapted to dry area.
  • Plants adapted to wet areas.
  • Adaptations to normal soil and water conditions.

Adaptations of plants to their environment.

Adaptations are mechanisms that enable a plant to survive in a habitat. Plants habitats include:-

• Dry areas
• Wet areas.
• Normal soil and water condition

Plants adapted to dry area.

Plants that are able to survive in dry area are called xerophytes.

Examples include: Cactus, acacia, euphorbia, baobab, sisal, marram grass, pricky pears, desert
shrubs, sun dune grass, jacaranda, thorn tree, cassava, casuarinas and candelabra.

Characteristics of xerophytes.

1. They have deep and widespread root system to obtain waterfrom a wider area.
2. They have stemsthat can store water; their stems are thick, fleshy and succulent. They also have waxy cuticle to reflect sunlight which may cause overheating.
3. They have needle-like leaves which reduces water loss by transpiration and evaporation.
4. Some have few leaves to reduce water losslike acacia.
5. Some shed leaves in dry seasonsto reduce water loss eg jacaranda.
6. Some fold their leaves to trap moisture for the plant eg sun dune grass.
7. Some are covered with a thick waxy cuticle which reduces water loss through evaporation eg sisal.
8. Some become inactive during dry seasons.
9. Some have sunken stomata that are hidden in small depression.
10. Some have reversed stomatal rhythm i.e. open their stomata during the night and close during the day.
11. Some have more stomata on the lowersurface than on the upper surface to reduce water loss through evaporation.

Plants adapted to wet areas.

They are called hydrophytes.

Most they grow in equatorial forests, swamps, marshes, lakes and rivers.

They include: water lily, butter cup, mangroves, bladderwort, water lettuce, duck weed, aquatic
ferns, rice plants and water hyacinth.

Adaptations of hydrophytes.

1. They have broad or wide flat leaves which enables them to float on water and encourages water loss by transpiration eg water lily
2. They have shallow roots which reduce the rate of absorption
3. They have leafy shoots which encourages water loss by transpiration, they also have more stomatas on the upper surface than on the lowersurface
4. They have numerous stomata which remain open to allow gas absorption for photosynthesis.
5. They have flexible stemsthat cannot be broken by water currents.
6. They have thin cuticle to encourage water loss through transpiration.
7. They have air sacs to enable them to float on water.
8. They have waxy and hairy leaf surface to prevent water from standing on the leaf surface.
9. They have floating flowers to allow for the cross pollination by small animals.

Adaptations to normal soil and water conditions.

Plants which grow in normal soil and water conditions are called mesophytes.

They includes maize, beans, potatoes and bananas.

Signs of unhealthy crops.

1. Leaf discoloration.
2. Stunted or stranded growth.
3. Curled leaves.
4. Spots or streaks
5. Wilting.

Effects of crop diseases.

1. Lower yields.
2. Reduces quality of produce.
3. Reducesincome or economic loss.

• Sexually Transmitted infections (STIs)

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

These are diseases which are passed from one person to another person through sexual contact.

They are also called sexual transmitted diseases (STDs)

NB: Genital herpes and HIV/AIDS are other STIs caused by virus.

• Fertilization
  • Types of Fertilization
  • Foetal Development.
• Excretion
  • Excretory Organs (SKIL)

Fertilization

Fertilization is the fusion or union of the nuclei of the ovum and the sperm in the
oviduct/fallopian tube.

Types of Fertilization.

There are two types of Fertilization that takes place in the female's body. Namely;

• Internal fertilization- Which takes place inside the female's body, mainly in human beings,
  birds and reptiles.
• External fertization - Which takes place outside the female's body, mainly amphibians and
  fish.

Process of Fertilization in human beings

During sexual intercourse/coitus/copulation, sperms are introduced in the vagina by the penis.

Sperms swim in the semen using their tails until they reach the oviduct where they meet a
mature ovum.

Many sperms surrounds the ovum but only one penetrates the ovum, the nuclei of the sperm
and the ovum fuse to form a Zygote

After fertilization a woman becomes pregnant and this is called conception. NB: The sperms
which do not penetrate the ovum are killed.

The zygote then undergo cell division, travels down to uterus and attaches itself on the uterine walls, this is called implantation

After implantation, the zygote is called embryo 

Foetal Development.

After implantation, the embryo develops a disc-shaped organ called placenta which joins the
embryo to the mother.

At 6weeks the embryo has formed most of the important body organs such as the
lips, nose, arms, ears, eyes, feet and toes.

At 8weeks(2months), the embryo is called foetus. The foetus is surrounded by the amnion which
contains a fluid called amniotic fluid.

Functions of the placenta

• Exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the mother and the foetus.
• Supply food from the mother's blood to the foetus.
• Production of hormones that maintains pregnancy.
• Facilitates transfer of waste productsfrom the foetus to the mother's blood.

Functions of the umbilical cord.

• Joins the foetus to the placenta.
• It is a passage for oxygen, food and carbon dioxide.

Functions of the amniotic fluid.

• It acts as a shock absorber to protect the foetus against physical injuries.
• It keeps the foetus warm.
• It prevents the foetus from drying.
• It lubricates the foetus for easy movement.

NB: Gestation period takes nine months or 36 to 40weeks or 280days in human beings, this is
the period between conception and birth.

Signs of pregnancy.

• Menstruation stops.
• The breast becomes larger, tender and sensitive.
• Increased frequency of urination.
• Craving for some foods.
• In later stage, expectant mothers experience some slight backaches.
• Heartburns.
• The abdomen enlarges.
• Breathlessness,tiredness and increased pulse rate.
• Movement of the foetus is felt.
• Morning sickness or nausea.

Birth process.

It is also called parturition.

When the foetus is fully developed, the head faces downwards and is positioned directly above the
cervix.

Stages in the birth process.

• The uterus walls contract causing labor pain.
• The cervix widens.
• Amnion burst and amniotic fluid flows out of the vagina.
• The baby is pushed out through the vagina with the head first.
• Breathing is induced by pinching of patting the baby.
• The umbilical cord is tied and cut, this prevents loss of blood from the mother and the baby also separates the baby from the mother.
• The placenta is expelled from the body. The expelled placenta is called afterbirth.

Excretion

This is the removal of waste productsfrom the body.

Excretory Organs (SKIL)

There are 3 main excretory organs, namely;

• Skin
• Lungs
• Kidneys.

Waste products removed by these organs are;

• Excess water.
• Excess salt.
• Urea.
• Carbon dioxide.
• Lactic acid.

Water, salt, urea and lactic acid forms sweat

Water, urea and salt forms urine.

Order of urine.

Kidney----->Ureter----->Bladder----->Urethra.