• Off Season Cropping Techniques
  • Technologies For Off Season Cropping
  • Off Season Production Techniques
• Value Addition Techniques
  • Importance Of Addition On Crop Produce (explained)

Off Season Cropping Techniques

Off season cultivation refers to the production outside of their typical cropping cycle.
The main objective of off season cultivation is to produce and supply to the market during their lean period.

Importance/Advantages of off season cropping

• It helps in the more effective and efficient use of land and farm resources.
• The per-unit result of off-season planting is excellent.
• Consumers nowadays prefer fresh veggies even when they are not in season, and off-season vegetable cultivation can meet this need.
• It is sometimes feasible to gain foreign exchange by exporting fresh veggies.
• It is a great source of preventive food that also contributes to nutritional security.
• It's a good choice for seed production.

Technologies For Off Season Cropping

1. Drip irrigation
   Crop yields can increase through improved water and fertility management and reduced disease and weed pressure. When drip irrigation is used with polyethylene mulch, yields can increase even further.
   These benefits are only possible when a drip irrigation system is properly designed, managed, and maintained.
   
   Advantages of drip irrigation
   
   • Lower-volume water sources can be used because trickle irrigation may require less than half of the water needed for sprinkler irrigation.
   • Lower operating pressures mean reduced energy costs for pumping.
   • High levels of water-use efficiency are achieved because plants can be supplied with more precise amounts of water.
   • Disease pressure may be less because plant foliage remains dry.
   • Labor and operating costs are generally less, and extensive automation is possible.
   • Water applications are made directly to the plant root zone. No applications are made between rows or other nonproductive areas, resulting in better weed control and significant water savings.
   • Field operations, such as harvesting, can continue during irrigation because the areas between rows remain dry.
   • Fertilizers can be applied efficiently through the drip system.
   • Irrigation can be done under a wide range of field conditions.
   • Compared to sprinkler irrigation, soil erosion and nutrient leaching can be reduced.
2. Container gardening
   The following crops best suited for container/pot gardening;
   • Beans
   • Beets
   • Tomatoes
   • Cucumber
   • Onions
   • Peas
   • Radish
   • Carrots
   • Potatoes
   • Squach
   • Brinjal(Eggplant)
   • Ladies Finger (okra)
   • Capsicum/Pepper/ Green Chilies
   • Leafy vegetables such as lettuce, Kale, Methi(Fenugreek), Coriander (cilantro)
     
     Factors to consider when establishing framed suspended gardening for off season crops
     
     • Can it be established along pathways
     • Can it enhance beauty
     • Can it grow within a short period of time (not a perennial crop)?
     • Is there space for the containers
     • Mechanisms put in place to manage pests and diseases.

Off Season Production Techniques

• Taking use of and utilizing various agro-climatic conditions.
• Improved varieties are chosen.
• Adjustment of planting time.
• Making plastic tunnels, polythene houses, and permanent glass houses to provide controlled environmental conditions.
• Staggered planting
• Succession planting – planting two different at different times in one farm- one with a faster maturity.
  Construction of suspended garden design
  Refer to learner’s book

Value Addition Techniques

Value-added agriculture generally focuses on production or manufacturing processes, marketing or services that increase the value of primary agricultural commodities, perhaps by increasing appeal to the consumer and the consumer's willingness to pay a premium over similar but undifferentiated products.

Benefits include:

• increased income,
• employment creation,
• improved food safety,
• food security,
• nutritional benefits and
• greater consumer confidence.

There are four major ways that value is added to crops along the value chain:

1. product transformation, e.g. frying, drying
2. distribution,
3. storage, and
4. added service.

The value of farm products can be increased by cleaning, cooling, cooking, combining, churning, culturing, grinding, extracting, drying, handcrafting, packaging and distributing, as well as by adding information, education or entertainment,

Adding value to groundnuts

Apart from just eating them raw or cooked, groundnuts can be used to produce oil, paste, flour or sauce used in cakes and cookies obtained by grinding nuts, and peanut butter.

Adding value to Potatoes

This can be done through boiling, frying, smashing.

Learners to check on how to add value on other products

Importance Of Addition On Crop Produce (explained)

•  Increased revenue. Any addition adds a percentage of increased financial value to the produce and has the effect of improving the incomes of the local farmers.
• Value addition allows the farmer to focus on the consumer while producing and through meeting expectations, he can create a loyal market around the product.
• Increased shelf life is a benefit any farmer would want. The longer the product can stay without getting spoilt, the more the guarantee one has of a product selling at their preferred price and time. Milk for instance, hardly lasts over 24 hours but with boiling, it can last more days while with further processing into ghee, the same milk can last months.
• With value addition comes increased bargaining power. Brand Creation is one of the de facto results of value addition and a fact that your product can be directly identified with you or your farm which is important in an industry where customers exercise a lot of brand loyalty. It allows them to always and readily identify with you as well as win you more referral customers.
• value addition creates employment opportunities for people who work there like; industrial chemists, food processors, factory laborers
• Wastage and disposal of unwanted refuse is curtailed since they can be made into different quality products. This helps to ensure zero waste and protect the environment.

• Animal Handling
  • Forms Of Animal Handling (humane Methods)
    • Rabbit Restraint & Handling
    • Rodents Restraint & Handling
    • Avian Restraint
    • Cats Restraint & Handling
  • Importance of Human Treatment of Animals
• General management of Pets
  • Characteristics of pets
  • Factors to Consider When Selecting a Pet For Rearing
• Preparation of Animal Products
  • Factors To Consider When Grading Eggs
  • Processing Raw Honey
  • Extracting Honey Without A Honey Extractor

Animal Handling

Forms Of Animal Handling (humane Methods)

The objective of humane animal handling is to move animals with minimum stress to both the animals and handler. Considerate handling reduces the risk to the animal of pain, injury and suffering.

Planning the restraint procedure

When preparing to restrain a patient, always make sure the area has enough room, is clean, dry, and well lit

• A plan should be discussed:
• Move any costly equipment
• Nonslip area
• Temperature should be considered
• What should be done if animal happens to get away from restrainer
• Back up plan (Plan B!)

Rabbit Restraint & Handling

Picking Up

Grab scruff of the neck with one hand and lifting up while placing the other hand under the rump for support or wrap patient securely in a towel.

Holding

Use the same technique but the hand under the rump is moved to support the abdomen.
Rabbits seldom bite but many cause injury with their hind legs or may be injured if placed on a smooth surface
Rabbit’s foot pads are covered with fur which causes a lack of traction
Can lead to dislocation of their hip or spinal fracture, when they try to move or hop

Rodents Restraint & Handling

Mice

Grasp the tail close to the body with one hand
Use the other hand to grasp loose skin in the neck and shoulder area.
Larger Rodents and Ferrets
Make sure the animal is awake to avoid bites
Hold in one hand, cup other over its head
Wrap thumb and index
finger around neck and under chin
Do not over tighten fingers around chest as this can impair breathing

Avian Restraint

Birds

Highly trained personnel
Can stress easily
Do not squeeze thorax
Sensitive to overheating
Small to medium sized
Grasp from behind, finger and thumb on sides of head, others around body
Large birds require 2 hands
Towel can also be used

Cats Restraint & Handling

Cats tend to be one of the most difficult during restraint when they become upset and aggressive from stress
Safely restrain and have control over head
Cat bags: control the limbs and head
Squeeze cages: wire boxes with small slots that allow injections to be given

Inhuman handling of animals in the community

Solutions to animal’s mistreatment

• Be an example of kindness to other pets. ...
• Intervene if you witness animal cruelty, abuse or neglect. ...
• Report animal cruelty, abuse or neglect. ...
• Teach your children to have respect for animals. ...
• Demand stricter laws for the protection of animals. ...
• Shelter an animal in need.

Importance Of Human Treatment Of Animals

• Improved levels of animal health and care will deliver better animal welfare, more efficient livestock production, safer animal-sourced foods and healthier, improved livelihoods.
• Animals that are well fed and watered, kept in clean and comfortable conditions, and that are handled well with opportunities to express important behaviours are less likely to die prematurely or show poor growth than less well cared for animals.
• They are more productive with more efficient use of resources such as time, labour and feed for livestock production bringing benefits including improved food security and greater income.
• Furthermore, avoiding stress before slaughter reduces contamination of meat with harmful bacteria and affects the quality, and value of the meat.
• Animal welfare is therefore also environmental protection. However, it is not only animals in stables or private households that need to be protected, but also animals in the wild. There they need above all plenty of space, clean water, fresh air, and sufficient food and shelter.

General Management of Pets

Characteristics Of Pets

• Dependent on Humans to Live – A pet needs to be given food, water, and shelter by its owner. Being domesticated means the animal depends on its owner for all of its care.
• Lives in a Home – A pet lives in a home. Some pets such as parakeets and hamsters live in cages. Alternatively, dogs and cats wander freely around a home and may have their own bed to sleep in.
• Needs a Veterinarian’s Care – Pets need care from a veterinarian. The type of healthcare a pet needs depends on what type of pet it is. An iguana and a beagle need completely different types of vet care!
• Some Pets Can Be Trained – A dog can learn how to sit, stay, and heel in a course of obedience training. Parrots can be taught to talk, and some cats can be taught by humans to do tricks.
• Devoted to Its Owner – Pets are often devoted to their owners. They can establish a trust with their owner over time. In fact, some pets want to be with their owners 24/7!
• Provides Companionship – A pet is meant to be a companion to its owner.
• Pets are Different from a Therapy Animal – A therapy animal receives specific training in order to provide support and care to its owner. As an example, some therapy dogs are trained to recognize the signs of a seizure in their owner. The dog responds by trying to get the person to a safe place. Alternatively, a pet is there strictly as a companion.
• Different from a Farm Animal – A cow or a chicken living on a farm serves a specific purpose. A cow provides milk while a chicken lays eggs to be eaten or sold. This makes farm animals a little different than traditional pets.
• Can Be Common or Uncommon – When you think of a pet you probably picture a dog, a cat, a bird, a fish, or a gerbil. Those are common choices for pets. Some people prefer less common or exotic pets such as snakes, iguanas, spiders, and ferrets. As long as an owner can offer appropriate care, many animals can live happily as pets.
• Cannot Survive in the Wild – One of the main characteristics separating pets from other animals is a pet can’t survive in the wild. It has been domesticated or raised under a person’s care. So, releasing a pet snake into the wild doesn’t mean it will know how to find food or shelter. In fact, it will likely die.

Different types of pets reared in the community

A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with an individual or family. There are popular, well-known pets like dogs and cats

• Dogs
• Cat
• Rodents
• Fish
• Birds
• Turtles
• Snake

Factors To Consider When Selecting A Pet For Rearing

Choose a pet that will suit your lifestyle and surroundings. For instance:

• How often are you home? If you work long hours, a dog may not be a good choice of pet, as all dogs require lots of companionship. In this case, pets such as fish might be more suitable.
• How large is your backyard, and do you have good fencing? If you have a small backyard or poor fencing, then a dog may not be a good choice. You could consider a pet such as a cat that lives indoors with you.
• Are you prepared to have more than one pet? Some types of animals, such as birds and rabbits, need the company of each other to stay happy and healthy.
• How much money can you afford to spend on your pet? All pets are expensive — even animals that are cheap to purchase, like fish, birds and guinea pigs, can cost a lot of money when it comes to buying and setting up tanks, cages and hutches. Some dog breeds will cost more to keep than others. Large dogs need more food, some breeds of dogs need regular clipping of their coats.
• Are you renting? Your landlord may not let you to own a cat or a dog. You may want to consider other pets such as fish.
• Do you live in an apartment? Some birds, such as parrots, can be very noisy, and may attract complaints from neighbours. You may want to consider a quiet pet such as a cat, or fish.
• Do you have young children? Some types of pets tolerate children better than others.
• Are you prepared to have your pet inside with you? Dogs should not be left in the backyard all day — they need to spend time inside the house with you, in order to remain happy and healthy.
• Does your council require cats to be confined to your property? If so, you must be prepared to have your cat live inside with you, or to buy or build cat proof fencing or a cat enclosure.
• How much time do you have to exercise your pet? Dogs need daily walks. Some breeds of dog are more energetic than others and may need longer or more frequent walks.
• How much time do you have to train your pet? Dogs, particularly puppies or young dogs, need time spent on toilet training and basic obedience training. Puppies and kittens also require lots of socialization, and regular small meals throughout the day, during the first 6 months of life. You may be better off adopting an adult dog or cat, who is already house trained and socialized.

Acquiring a pet for rearing

• Adoption is the best choice 
  Adoption of a pet from a shelter is the best way to find a new companion. There are many animals in shelters waiting for a new home to call their own, including a large variety of breeds, sizes, and ages of animals. Some shelters also rehome small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs and hamsters who are often sadly taken to shelters when the children they have been bought for have lost interest in caring for them. The benefit of rehoming from a reputable animal shelter is that the animals will have been assessed both in terms of their health and behaviorally
• Brokers,
• pet stores,
• neighbors,
• professional breeders,
• commercial kennels,
• puppy mills, and animal shelters

Management Practices In Rearing Of Pets

• Colostrum feeding
• Weaning
• Disbudding - Arresting the horn growth at an early age, when the horn root is in the bud stage is called disbudding.
• Ear tagging
• Castration
• Vaccination schedule for adult animals
• Disinfection
• Quarantine
• Isolation of sick animals
• Insuring the animals
• Disposal of carcass
• Record maintenance

Preparation Of Animal Products

Different animal products include:
meat and meat products, poultry products (meat and eggs), fish, shellfish, dairy products (milk and cheese), and non-food products such as fiber (wool, mohair, cashmere, and leather)

Factors To Consider When Grading Eggs

The grade is determined by the

• interior quality of the egg
• the appearance and condition of the egg shell.
• Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight (size).
• Weight or Volume
• cleanliness
• Size,
• Colour

Factors considered in detecting defects when grading eggs

• blood spot,
• meat spot,
• mold,
• stuck yolk,
• addled egg and
• embryonic growth

Processing Raw Honey

The process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:

Honey Harvest

1. beekeepers suite - mesh helmet and folding veil would do it, with some layers of clothes
2. smoker with fuel (dry branches, leaves, etc.) and a lighter
3. frame super - where frames with honey combs will be put for transportation
4. sting resistant gloves
5. hive tool - to move the frames, scrape wax, etc.

Honey Extraction

1. heated knife - to unseal honey cells
2. uncapping fork - to unseal honey cells missed by the heated knife
3. tub for wax/honey
4. extractor! - fancy cylindrical piece of equipment, used to extract honey
5. food-grade bucket - to catch honey out of the extractor
6. double sieve - catches wax and impurities as honey is poured from extractor
7. containers - final destination of honey before consumption

The process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:

1. Harvesting
   Light the smoker. Use dry branches, hay or newspaper. The smoke dulls the bees' receptors, and prevents them from releasing the alarm odor, a volatile pheromone. The smoke also makes bees gorge on honey, which further pacifies them
   
2. Prepare Supers
   The frames with honey comb are transported in supers. Have them handy. You may also want to have a cloth to cover the super with frames full of honey to prevent bees or other insects from getting to them.
   
3. Open Sesame
   
   Using the hive tool, lift the hive lid and blow some smoke in the hive. Open lid slowly. Our bees were pretty calm, but that is not always the case!
4. Honey Frame Inspection
   Pull the frames out of the super and inspect the honey combs. Depending on how busy the bees were, how warm it was and if the hive didn't swarm you will know how much honey you have.
   
5. Extraction
   
   Now the best part! Take the frame of capped honey. Mount the frame above the tub for wax and honey. Use the heated knife to unseal the cells. Lean the heated knife on the edges of the frame and under 30 degree angle and move "fast" - don't linger too long, it burns the honey! Repeat for both sides of the frame.
   The heated knife takes off most of the caps. For the leftover ones, use the uncapping fork and gently shave off the caps.
6. Pour Out Slowly!
   
   Place your food-grade bucket under the extractor spigot. Use a double sieve to catch the wax and impurities as the honey starts pouring out of the extractor.
7. Prepare Containers
   
   Wash your jugs, jars or whatever containers you will put the honey in. Air dry.
   

Extracting Honey Without A Honey Extractor

For small apiaries, harvesting honey without an extractor can be a fun and inexpensive option. We’ll cover two methods that do not require an extractor: the crush and strain method, and the cut comb method. Both of these extraction methods sacrifice comb, meaning your bees will need to draw out new comb before they can produce more honey — which can mean a smaller harvest the next year. This may factor into your decision about which method you use.

The crush and strain method is a low-cost honey processing technique. You simply scrape the honeycomb off of the frame into a bucket, then crush the comb. Place a sieve in another bucket or container, pour the crushed comb into the sieve, and strain it overnight. This process may be best suited for hobby beekeepers who only have one or two hives. The honey will move more quickly in a warm room, and you may be able to get more honey if you stir the crushed combs a few times and scrape large wax flakes off of the inside of the strainer.

Cut comb honey is an elegant way to package and use your harvest. There are tools available for cutting and packaging comb, but a good-quality kitchen knife does the job nicely, as well. This method works only for frames that contain wireless wax foundation or no foundation — you cannot use this method with frames that use plastic foundations, and wired wax foundation will limit the sizes and shapes of combs you can cut. Choose frames that are fully capped and sealed — this indicates that the honey will have the right amount of moisture to prevent spoiling.

Importance of sorting and grading eggs

• Sorted eggs bring more money to the investor than unsorted.
• It reduces wastage.
• separates eggs into grades of quality.
• A bad egg can be dangerous to consume and negatively affect someone's health.

Importance of processing raw honey

• improves the honey's appearance,
• increases its shelf-life, and
• kills yeast cells that can affect the taste of the honey.
• It can prevent fermentation.
• It delays crystallization.
• removes impurities.

• Preparation Of Planting Site
• Crop Establishment
  • Types of Planting Materials
  • Environmental Factors
  • Seedling Characteristics
  • Methods of Planting Various Crops
  • Methods of Plant Propagation
• Crop Management
  • Physical Methods Of Weeding
  • Managing Plant Spaces
  • Crop Hardening

Preparation Of Planting Site

Preparing land for planting is one of the most important parts of cultivating abundance. Whether you're planting fruit trees, wildlife corridors, or an annual garden, prepping the soil in the first place is the best way to set yourself up for success over the long haul.
There are numerous methods that you can use for preparing land for planting that will help me make the living world around me come alive.

• One-Time Tilling
  
• Mulch Alone
• Sheet Mulching
• Double Digging
• Solarizing
  
• Animals (focus on chickens and pigs)

Crop Establishment

Categories of planting materials

Types of Planting Materials

• Seeds (seasoning herbs, legumes, corn)
• Seedlings (most vegetable crops)
• Cuttings (cassava, potato, yam, ginger, dasheen, tannia, eddoes)
• Suckers (banana, plantain)
• Budded/ grafted plants (fruit trees)

Certain Factors need to be considered when you are choosing planting matter or seedlings from nurseries or plant shop.

Environmental Factors

• The surroundings should be free from overgrown bushes, generally clean, no waterlogged conditions
• Seedlings should be in conditions that are free from excess shade. If seedlings have too much shade they do not “harden off” and they have difficulties when they are transplanted.

Seedling Characteristics

The seedlings should:

1. Be of the appropriate age (seedlings with 4-6 healthy green leaves)
2. Be free from pests and diseases
3. Have healthy white roots (good root development, with no balling of roots)
4. Show vigorous, healthy growth
5. Be of uniform appearance
6. Have the proper Shoot to Root ratio (2:1)

Methods Of Planting Various Crops

• Broadcasting: Generally, the seeds are broadcast-sown and later planked. This method of sowing is easier and area coverage is quick. However, uniform population cannot be maintained since the seeds are not placed in uniform depth and germination may not be uniform. The skill of the labour is important to sow the seeds evenly covering the entire field. Broadcast-sowing is normally practiced under dryland condition. Seed requirement is generally high for broadcast sowing.
• Sowing behind the country plough: In this method, sowing is taken up behind the country plough operation. Seeds are dropped in the furrow opened during ploughing and subsequently covered while the next adjoining furrow is formed. Bold seeded crops like groundnut are sown by this method in drylands. It is important to take up sowing at the appropriate soil moisture so that the depth of sowing is uniformly maintained.
• Drill sowing or drilling: Drill sowing is one of the best methods that provides uniform plant population since seeds are uniformly dropped in the furrows. Animal drawn or power operated seed drills are used for this purposes; seed cum fertilizer drill can also be used. By this way, depth of sowing can be maintained; fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. Pelleting of small sized seeds may reduce the risk of irregular dropping. Since sowing is taken up in lines, intercultural operations can be easily practiced. It is possible to take up sowing of intercrops also.
• Dibbling: In the method, a seed or few seeds are put in a hole and covered. Under irrigated condition, seeds are dibbled in lines or on the sides of the ridges maintaining optimum intra- row spacing, e.g. maize and cotton. Though this method is laborious and time consuming, it gives rapid and uniform germination and the requirement of seed is less than in broadcasting.

Methods of Plant Propagation

1. Cutting
   This is cutting the vegetative part of the plant (leaf, stem, and root) and then planting it again to regenerate the whole plant. The three types of cutting are named after the plant part being detached/cut:
   
   • Stem cutting
   • Leaf cutting
   • Root cutting
     
2. Division
   This is a suitable technique for perennials (plants that live for more than two years). It involves dividing the plant by digging and moving it to an already prepared site. This helps the plant to rejuvenate and reduce water and nutrient competition.
   
3. Layering
   In this technique, the attached and bent branch of the plant is covered with soil and allowed to root. After the emergence and development of roots that specific part of the plant is cut and allowed to grow as a new plant. This is called ‘layering’.
   
4. Grafting
   This involves cutting a twig of one plant and joining it with the stem of another plant in such a manner that they form a unit and function as one plant. It is a bit of a complex process but allows you to bring the desired character to your plant. However, be sure to sterilize your hands and tools to make sure you don’t transfer any infections during the process.
   
5. Budding
   In this method, a cut is made in the rootstock and a single bud with little or no wood is inserted into it in such a way that they unite and grow as a new plant.
   

Time of planting depends on the following factors

• Soil and weather conditions
• The kind of crop to be planted.
• The time the produce is desired.

Crop Management

• Adoption of best crop management practices improves crop productivity and can contribute to greater yields with improved quality.
• Crop management is the set of agricultural practices performed to improve the growth, development and yield of crops.
• It begins with a seedbed preparation, sowing of seeds and crop maintenance; and ends with crop harvest, storage and marketing.
• The timing and sequence of agricultural practices depend upon several factors, such as winter or spring crops; harvested products such as grain, hay and silage; sowing methods-broadcast and row-crops; and, plants age, soil, climate and weather conditions.

Physical Methods Of Weeding

Manual control

Manual control is the use of the hands or handheld tools to deal with. An advantage of manual control is that it minimizes soil disturbance, and decreases the likelihood of erosion and seed germination.

Hand pulling

Hand pulling aims to remove the entire plant, including its roots, from the soil. This method is useful for small-scale infestations. It is best to hand-pull weeds after rain, when soil is moist. Sturdy gloves should be worn to avoid prickles, blisters or sap burns to the skin. It is not appropriate for all weed species, such as those with underground bulbs.
Hand tools such as broad knives and trowels can be used to remove underground parts of weeds (such as bulbs) that may reshoot. In some cases it is necessary to dig out the crown of the plant. This requires the growing part of the plant to be cut beneath the ground using a knife.

Grubbing or chipping

This method requires weeds to be dug out using a mattock or chip hoe. Depending on the plant, it may be important to expose the root system, and remove the crown.
In some cases, the mattock or chip hoe is used to cut the stem of the plant below the ground. This method is useful when the ground is hard. Gloves should be worn to avoid blisters.

Mechanical control

Mechanical control is the use of powered tools and machinery to manage weeds and is best suited to larger infestations. Care should be taken to minimise soil disturbance.

Slashing, mowing, dozing, pushing and felling

At times, controlling weeds using mechanical methods is preferred. However, care should be taken when machinery is used in the process.

Disturbing the soil with mechanical control can:

• increase the likelihood of seed germination
• damage native vegetation.

Bulldozers and chainsaws can be used on woody and tree weeds where they are pushed or felled and finally snigged (dragged away). These methods are only suitable in certain situations, as they create high levels of soil and vegetation disturbance. Also, shoots and seedlings require follow-up attention.

Grading or scalping the top layer of soil is an effective method of removing a seedbank. As this method greatly disturbs the soil, it is best suited for areas that are to undergo complete rehabilitation.

Earth Up
Earthing up refers to the act of heaping soil around the root zone of the potato plant. It is one of the primary production practices that must be done to increase the potato yield.

Advantages of earthing up

• improves tuber formation/expansion/roots/pods formation
• Improves drainage around the crop
• Conserves water/soil
• Facilitates harvesting of tuber crops
• Root protection

Managing Plant Spaces

Thinning

When the young seedlings are too close to each other, they do not grow well. They do not find enough nourishment in the soil and their leaves do not have enough room to develop.
Leave only the strongest plants and remove the others. This is called thinning.
When you take out the seedlings that are small, diseased or misshapen, be very careful not to damage the seedlings which remain in the beds.
At the end, pack down the earth around the base of the plants and water them.

Staking

Vegetables with long and weak stems, for example beans and tomatoes, need stakes.
A stake is a stick firmly embedded in the earth. It is best to use hard wood, which does not rot.

Pruning

Certain vegetables, like tomatoes, beans, eggplant, need pruning.
Nip off surplus buds. Then there will be more fruits and they will be bigger.

Gapping

When the seeds fail to germinate, empty spaces are seen within the rows. This if left unfilled can make the farmer incur losses as a result of low yields. The filling up of these spaces or the replacement of ungerminated seeds is called gapping.

Advantages of thinning and gapping

Both thinning and gap filling ensures ideal plant population and optimum utilization of sunlight, space, nutrients, moisture and other inputs which ultimately increases yield.

Crop Hardening

• Hardening, or "hardening off," is the process of allowing a plant to transition from a protected indoor or greenhouse environment to the harsh outdoor conditions of fluctuating spring temperatures, wind, and full sun exposure.
• A gradual introduction of these outdoor stresses will cause the plant to accumulate carbohydrates, to trigger more root development, to reduce the amount of freeze-prone water in the plant, and to actually thicken its cell walls. Plant growth will change from soft and supple to much firmer and harder.

Hardening Timetable

• Start the process of moving plants outdoors about two weeks before the weather will be favorable enough for the particular plant to live outdoors.
• Check seed package instructions or inquire where you purchase seedlings as to when the plant can tolerate outdoor conditions. (Keep in mind that air temperature is often warmer than soil temperature.)
• This Vegetable Planting and Transplanting Guide provides guidance for when some popular crops can be planted outdoors.

Hardening Process

• When temperatures are at least 45-50ᵒ, move plants outdoors to a shady, protected spot.
• Initially place in the shaded, sheltered location for two to three hours.
• Gradually increase the amount of sunlight the plants receive over the two-week period. The last day or two, the plants can spend 24 hours outside.
• Reduce the amount of water plants receive, but do not allow them to wilt.
• Avoid placing seedlings outdoors on windy days.
• Cold frames are excellent places to harden plants, but another spot that provides protection, such as a porch, will work.
• Pay attention to the weather forecast; if temperatures will fall below 45ᵒ, be prepared to bring the plants inside.

Keep in mind that the overall goal of hardening is to slow the growth of the plants to allow them to adjust to a change in conditions. After proper hardening, even warmth-loving vegetables, such as tomatoes, can withstand an unexpected dip in spring temperatures.

Importance of crop management practices

Learners to work on them.

• Business Transactions
  • Documents Used At The Inquiry Stage
  • Documents Used At The Order Stage
  • Documents Used At The Delivery Stage
  • Documents Used At The Invoicing Stage
  • Documents Used At The Payment Stage
• Methods Of Payments For Goods And Services
  • Cash
  • Means Of Payments Provided By The Banks
    • Cheques
    • Bank drafts/Banker’s cheques
    • Credit Transfer
    • Standing Order
    • Traveler's cheques
    • Telegraphic Transfers
    • Debit cards
    • Electronic Fund Transfer (E.F.T)
  • Means of Payments Provided By The Post Office
  • Other Means Of Payment
• Importance Of Financial Documents In Record Keeping In Business

Business Transactions

• A business transaction is a deal between two or more people involving exchange of goods and services in terms of money.
• Business transaction may take place on cash basis; in which case goods are paid for before or on delivery or a short while after delivery
• Business transaction may also take place on credit basis; which means payment is made after a specified period from the date of delivery of the goods or the provision of the services

Documents Used At The Inquiry Stage

This is the first stage in transaction. An inquiry is a request by a prospective buyer for information on available goods and services. It is aimed at establishing the following;

• Whether the goods or services required are available for sale
• The quality or nature of the products available
• The prices at which the goods or services are being sold
• The terms of sale in respect to payment and delivery of goods or services Some of the documents used at this stage include;

Letter of inquiry;
This is a letter written by a potential buyer to the seller to find out the goods and services offered by the seller.
A letter of inquiry can be general or specific. A specific letter of inquiry seeks for information about a particular product.
Reply to an inquiry
The seller may reply to the letter of inquiry by sending any of the following documents;

• Price list
• A catalogue
• Quotation
• A tender
  1. A price list
     This is a list of items sold by the trader together with their prices. The information contained in a price list is usually brief and not illustrated and may include;
     • Name and address of the Seller-List of the goods and services
     • The recommended unit prices of the products -Any discounts offered
       Price list show the prices of the commodities at that time.
  2. A catalogue;
     A catalogue is a basket which briefly describes the goods a seller stocks.
     It is normally sent by the seller to the buyer when the buyer sends a general letter of inquiry. It usually carries illustrations on the goods stocked, and could be in the form of attractive and colorful pictures
     The content of a catalogue includes the following;
     • Name and address of the seller
     • Details of the products to be sold; inform of pictures and illustrations
     • The prices of the products
     • After-sales services offered by the seller
     • Packaging and posting expenses to be incurred
     • Delivery services to be used
     • Terms of sale
       Catalogues carry more information than the price list and they are more expensive to print.
  3. Quotation;
     This is a document sent by a seller to a buyer in response to a specific letter of inquiry. It specifies the conditions and terms under which the seller is willing to supply the specified goods and services to the buyer.
     The content of a quotation includes the following;
     • Name and address of Seller-Name and address of the buyer
     • Description of goods to be supplied -Prices of the commodities
     • Terms of sale i.e. discounts, time of supply, delivery -Total of the goods to be supplied
       Quotations are normally in form of letters, but many large-scale businesses have pre-printed quotations forms which they readily send to the potential customers.
  4. A Tender
     This is a document of offer to sell sent by a seller to a buyer in response to an advertised request
     Tenders contain the following;
     • Date when the tender advertisement was made -Mode of payment
     • Date of making document -Discounts given
     • Name and address of prospective seller called the tenderer
     • The prices at which the goods can be provided
     • Period of delivery -Mode of delivery
     • Tenders are delivered in sealed envelopes which are opened by the buyer on a specified date
       The winning tender is usually awarded on the of the lowest quoted price although the buyer is not obliged to accept this especially if quality is likely to be low
       Tenders are not binding unless accepted by the buyer.

Documents Used At The Order Stage

After receiving replies to inquiry in form of price list, catalogue or Quotation, a prospective buyer will study the terms and conditions stated in them, and then may decide to buy products or not.

1.  An Order
   If a prospective buyer decides to purchase an item(s), he or she then places an order
   An order is a document sent by a potential buyer to a seller requesting to be provided with specified products under specified terms and conditions
   -An order issued for goods is called a local purchase order (LPO) An order issued for services is called a local service order (LSO)
   Ways of making an order
   1. Filling an order form. This is a pre-printed document that is used for making orders
   2. Writing an order letter
   3. Sending an e-mail, faxing or sending a short text message
   4. Giving a verbal order. Verbal orders have the disadvantage in that they can be misunderstood and there would be no record of items ordered
      Where written orders are made, the potential buyer keeps a copy of the order for use in verifying the goods ordered when they are delivered.
      A written order may contain the following;
      • Name and address of the buyer
      • Name and address of the seller
      • The number of the order
      • Quantities ordered and total amount to be paid
      • Description of the goods ordered
      • Price per item
      • Special instructions on such matters as packaging and delivery
2. Acknowledgement note
   On receiving the order, the seller sends the buyer an acknowledgement note An acknowledgement note is a document sent by the seller to the prospective buyer to inform him/her that the order has been received and it is being acted upon.
   After sending the acknowledgement note, the seller has to decide whether to extend credit to the buyer or not. At this stage, the seller has the following options;
   
   1. If the seller is convinced that the buyer is credit worthy, arrangements are made to deliver the ordered goods or services to the buyer.
   2. If the seller is not sure of credit worthiness of the buyer, a credit status inquiry can be issued to the buyer’s bankers or to other suppliers who deal with the buyer to ascertain the credit worthiness.
   3. If the buyer is not credit worthy then a polite note or a pro forma invoice can be sent to him/her

A proforma invoice

This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer requesting the buyer to make payment for goods or services before they are delivered. It indicates that the seller is not willing to grant the buyer credit.

Functions of a proforma invoice

1. A polite way of asking for payment before the goods are delivered
2. Sent when the seller does not want to give credit
3. Used by importers to get customers clearance before goods are delivered
4. Issued to an agent who sells goods on behalf of the seller
5. Show what the buyer would have to pay if the order is approved
6. Can be used to serve as a quotation

Circumstances under which a pro-forma invoice may be used

• If the seller does not want to give credit
• If the seller wants to sell goods through an agent
• If the seller wants to get clearance for imported goods
• If the seller wants it to function as a quotation
• If the seller wants to inform the buyer what he/she pay if the order is approved e.t.c

Documents Used At The Delivery Stage

After the seller has accepted the order sent an acknowledgement note and where necessary the pro-forma invoice, the seller then prepares the goods for delivery to the buyer. This can be done in the following ways;

• The seller can ask the buyer to collect the goods
• The seller can deliver the goods to the buyer using his/her own means of transport
• The goods can be delivered to the buyer through public transport
• The services(s) can be rendered to the buyer at the sellers or the buyer’s premises or at any convenient place.

The main documents that are used at this stage are;

1. Packing note; Before delivery goods are packed for dispatch. This is a document prepared by the seller showing the goods contained/packed in every container, box or carton being delivered to the buyer
   
   • A copy of the packing note is packed with the goods to make/help the buyer have a spot check.
     The contents of a packing note include;
   • Description of goods packed
   • Quantities of goods packed
   • The means of delivery
     NOTE: A packing not does not contain prices of goods. This ensures that those people involved in checking and transporting goods do not know the value of goods. This is done as a precaution against theft.
2. Advice note; This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to inform the buyer that the ordered goods have been dispatched. It is usually sent through the fastest means possible.
   
   • It contains the following;
   • The means of delivery
   • A description of the goods
   • The quantity dispatched -Date
   • Name and address of buyer and seller
     Functions of an advice note
     1. Informing the buyer that the goods are on the way so that in case of any delay in delivery, the buyer can make inquiries
     2. Alerting the buyer so that necessary arrangements can be made for payments when the goods arrive
     3. Can serve as an acknowledgement note, where one is not sent/
3. Delivery note; This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to accompany the goods being delivered.
   -A delivery note is always made in triplicate (3), one copy remains with the seller and two sent to the buyer.
   -When the goods reach the buyer, he/she confirms that the goods are the ones ordered for and that they are in the right condition by comparing the delivery note, the order and the goods. If the buyer is satisfied with the goods, he/she signs the two copies, retains the original and send the copy back to the seller. This serves as evidence that the goods have been received in the right condition and in the right quantities.
   -Some businesses keep delivery books in which the buyer signs to indicate that goods have been received in good condition. A delivery book is used by the seller if he/she delivers goods by himself/herself as an alternative to a delivery note
   The content of a delivery note includes the following;
   
   1. Name and address of the seller
   2. Name and address of the buyer
   3. Date of delivery
   4. Delivery note number
   5. Description of the goods delivered
   6. Quantities of the goods delivered
   7. Space for the buyer to sign and comment on the condition of the goods received.
4. Consignment note
   This is a document prepared by a transporter to show that he/she has been hired to deliver specified goods to a particular buyer. This document is used when goods are delivered to the buyer by public means of transport e.g. by trains.
   -The seller is the consignor, the buyer is the consignee and the goods the consignment
   -The transporting company prepares the consignment note and gives the seller to complete and sign. The seller then returns the note to the transporter (carrier) who takes it together with the goods to the buyer.
   -On receiving the goods, the buyer signs the consignment note as evidence that the goods were actually transported.
   The content of a consignment note includes the following;
   
   • Details of the goods to the transported
   • Name address of seller (consignor)
   • Name and address of buyer (consignee)
   • Terms of carriage and conditions of transporting the goods
   • The transportation cost
   • Handling information
   • Destination of goods
5. Goods Received note; This is a document sent by the buyer to the seller to inform him/her that goods sent have been received. It usually prepared in duplicate, the original is sent to the seller and the copy retained by the buyer.
   The contents of the goods received note include;
   
   • Date of the document
   • Name and address of the buyer
   • Name and address of the seller
   • Corresponding purchase order
   • Details of goods received
   • Date the goods were received.
6. Returned goods note/Damaged goods note; If goods are damaged on the way, the buyer may return them to the seller. The buyer may also return goods for other reasons e.g.
   
   • Wrong type of goods
   • Excess goods
   • Wrong quality goods
     -When the goods are returned, the buyer informs the seller of the return by sending a goods returned note.
     -A goods returned note is a document sent by a buyer to a seller to inform him/her that certain goods are being returned to the seller.
     -Where the goods are returned because of damage, the note may be referred to as the damaged goods note.
     The contents of the goods returned note include;
   • Details of goods that have been returned to the seller
   • Date goods are returned
   • The number of (GRN)
   • Order number
   • Delivery number
   • Name and address of both buyer and seller
     -When the seller receives the note together with the goods, he issues a credit note

Documents Used At The Invoicing Stage

This stage involves the seller requesting or demanding for payment from the buyer for the goods or services delivered.
Some of the documents used at this stage include:

1. Invoice
   This is a document sent to the buyer by the seller to demand for payment for goods delivered or services rendered.
   There are two types of invoices namely:
   
   1. Cash invoice-This is sent when payment is expected immediately after delivery thus acting as a cash sale receipt
   2. A credit invoice-This is sent when a buyer is allowed to pay at a later date.
      Functions of an invoice
      
      1. It shows the details of goods sold i.e. quantity delivered, unit price, total value of the goods and terms and conditions of sale.
      2. It is a request to the buyer to make payment
      3. It serves as an evidence that the buyer owes the seller a certain amount of money
      4. It is used as a source document in recording the transaction in the book of accounts.
         The contents of an invoice include the following:
         • Invoice number
         • Name and address of the seller
         • Name and address of the buyer
         • Date document is prepared
         • Details of goods repaired
         • Unit prices of goods delivered
         • Total value of goods
         • Discounts offered
         • E and O.E printed at the bottom
           The letters E and O.E (Errors and Omissions Excepted) means the seller reserves the right to correct any errors and omissions made in the invoice. -On receiving the invoice, the buyer verifies the contents using the local purchase order and the delivery note. If the invoice is in order, the buyer makes arrangements to pay the amount stated.
           Businesses which offer services issue a document called a bill, which serves the purpose of an invoice.
2. Credit note
   This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer (credit buyer) to correct an overcharge. It is used to inform the buyer that the amount payable by him/her has been reduced
   An overcharge is an excess amount charged beyond the right price. Causes of overcharge may include;
   • Arithmetical errors like wrong addition
   • Price overcharges
   • Inclusion of wrong or unordered items in the invoice
   • Failure to deduct the allowable discounts
   • Return of goods (damaged goods)
   • Failure to note the return by the buyer of packing cases or containers used to deliver goods to him/her
   • Use of wrong price list.
     -The purpose of the credit note is to reduce the total invoice amount by the amount of the overcharge.
     -A credit note is usually printed in red to distinguish it from other documents.
     -Contents of a credit note include;
     • Name and address of the seller and the buyer
     • Credit note number
     • Date document is prepared
     • Description and value of goods returned by buyer (in case that was done)
     • Total overcharge
       
       Reasons why a seller would send a credit note to a buyer/circumstances under which a credit note is sent to a buyer.
       • When there is an overcharge in an invoice
       • When the original invoice had indicated items that were not supplied -When the buyer returns empty cases/crates that had been charged in the invoice.
       • When the buyer returns some goods to the seller
       • If the buyer was entitled to a discount which was not given or taken care of in the invoice.
3. Debit note
   This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to correct an undercharge on the original invoice. It is used to inform the buyer that the amount payable by him has been increased.
   -A debit note acts as an additional invoice.
   -An undercharge arises when amount charged on products is less than their right price.
   Causes of undercharge include:
   • Price undercharges on items
   • Arithmetic errors/mistaken in calculation
   • Omission of items in the invoice
   • Retention of crates and containers that were not involved by the buyer
   • Deductions of more discount than what was give/intended
     Circumstances under which a debit note will be sent to the buyer
     1. When there is an undercharge in the invoice
     2. If the buyer had been given a discount that was not due to him
     3. If some items had been omitted in the original invoice
     4. If the buyer decides to retain some empty containers or crates

Differences Between a debit note and a credit note

Documents Used At The Payment Stage

This is the final stage of a credit business transaction. It takes place after the invoice has been received and ascertained to be correct or where necessary, corrections made.
The documents used at the payment stage include;

1. Receipt 
   This is a document issued to the buyer by the seller as proof that payment has been made.
   -Payment can be done in cash, cheque, other forms of money or in kind -The receipt also serves as a source document for making entries in books of accounts.
   Contents of the receipt include;
   
   • Date of payment
   • Name of the person making payment
   • Name of person/institution receiving payment
   • Amount paid in words and figures
   • Means of payment
   • Receipt number
   • Signature of person issuing the receipt.
     -The issuance of a receipt by the seller to the buyer after receiving payment marks the end of the credit transaction between the seller and the buyer (where payment has been done in full)
     -A receipt serves the same purpose as the cash sale slip
2. Statement of Account  
   This is a document prepared by the seller and sent to the buyer, giving a summary of all the dealings/transactions between them during a particular period of time, usually a month. It has the following details;
   
   • Date when it was prepared
   • Name and address of the seller
   • Name and address of the buyer
   • Account number
   • Date column-where the date of each transaction is recorded
   • Particulars (Details)column-where the explanation of each transaction is shown
   • Money column
     
     • Debit column-increases in the amounts payable due to credit sales or under charge correction.
     • Credit column-Decrease in the amounts payable due to overcharges corrected or payments recorded.
     • Balance column-Amount owing after each transaction (Balance outstanding)
   • Any discounts allowed to the buyer
   • Date when the buyer is expected to clear the balance
   • Terms of credit e.t.c.
     -The statement of account enables the buyer to ascertain the correctness of the transactions which have taken place with the seller over the stated period.
3. IOU
   An IOU (I owe you) is a document written by the buyer and sent to the seller to acknowledge a debt.
   -It does not specify date when settlement will be made. -It acts as evidence that a debt exists.

Methods Of Payments For Goods And Services

These are the methods or ways the buyer may use to settle debts arising from a business transaction. These are various means of payments that can be used. These means of payments can be put into the following groups;

1. Cash
2. Means of payment provided by the post office
3. Means of payments provided by the commercial banks
4. Means of payments which arise from private arrangements between sellers and buyers
5. Other means of payment. E.g. Mobile transaction, Online payments like paypal

Cash

• This refers to the use of notes and coins to make payments. Currency notes and coins are issued by the central Bank of Kenya and are therefore legal tender
• Legal tender means everyone is obliged by law to accept them as a means of payment i.e. no one can refuse to accept them as they are backed by the law.Notes and coins are available in different denominations as follows; Coins; 5cents, 50cents, sh.1, sh.5, sh.10 and sh.40
  Notes; sh.10.sh.20, sh.50, sh.100, sh.200, sh.500 and sh.1000.
• Coins are suitable for settling small debts and are acceptable as legal tender up to a certain maximum e.g. 50cents coins the maximum is sh20 and sh.1 the maximum is ksh.100.

Advantages of cash as a means of payment:

1.  It is the only means of payment which is a legal tender
2. Convenient for settlement of small debts
3. Convenient to people with or without bank accounts
4. Cash is readily usable

Disadvantages of cash as a means of payment

1. Not convenient to carry around
2. Cash can be lost or stolen easily as it is readily usable
3. Payment is difficult to prove unless a receipt is issued

Circumstances under which cash payment is appropriate

1. Where the amounts involved are small
2. Where the payee (receiver) does not accept other means of payment
3. Where cash is the only means available
4. Where the payee requires cash(money) urgently
5. Where there is need to avoid expenses associated with other means of payments

Means Of Payments Provided By The Banks

Commercial banks are financial institutions that accept deposits to and withdrawals from them.
They also lend money to customers. Examples of commercial banks include: Commercial bank of Kenya, National bank of Kenya, Barclays bank, and Co-operative bank e.t.c
-There are various means of payments provided by the commercial banks. They are:

1. Cheques
2. Bank drafts/bankers cheques
3. Credit transfers
4. Standing orders
5. Travellers cheques
6. Telegraphic transfers
7. Debit cards
8. Electronic fund Transfer(E.F.T)

Cheques

This is a written order by an account holder with the bank (drawer) to the bank (drawee) to pay on demand a specified amount of money to the named person (payee) or the bearer

Parties to a cheque

1. Drawer-This is the person or institution who writes and issues the cheque.He is usually a current account holder with the bank
2. Payee-The person or institution to be paid
3. Drawee-The bank (where the drawer has an account) Details on a cheque; they include:
   
   • Date when it is issued
   • Name of the drawer
   • The name of the payee, except in bearer cheques
   • The name of the drawee(bank)and branch from where it is issued
   • Amount to be paid in figures and in words
   • The account number of the drawer
   • The signature of the drawer
   • The cheque number and bank code
   • The appropriate revenue stamps

Types of cheques

1. Open cheques
2. Crossed cheques
3. Bearer cheques
4. Order cheques

1. Open cheques
   This is acheque that can be presented for payment over the counter. You present it and cash is paid to you.
2. Crossed cheques
   This is acheque that bears two parallel lines on the face. This means the cheque cannot be cashed over the counter. The cheque is deposited in an account (payee’s account)
   The payee then withdraws the money from his/her account
   A crossed cheque can be opened by the drawer signing twice on its face. -A crossing can be general or special
   • General crossing-general crossings only contains the two parallel lines. This implies that the cheque will be paid through any bank in which it is deposited.
   • Special crossings-Has other instructions included in the crossing i.e;
     • Not negotiable-Means the cheque can be transferred by the payee to a third party, but he third cannot transfer the cheque (only the original payee can transfer the cheque)
     • Account payee only-Means the cheque should be deposited in the account of the payee.
     • Not transferable-Means there is no negotiation or transfer of the cheque
3. Bearer cheques-This cheque does not have the name of the payee written on it. The person presenting it to the bank is the one who is paid.
4. Order cheque-The cheque bears the name of the payee. The bank pays this particular payee the amount stated in the cheque after proper identification

Dishonouring a cheque

A cheque is dishonored if the bank refuses to pay and returns the cheque to the drawer.

-A cheque can be dishonored due to the following reasons:

1. Insufficient funds in the account
2. If the signature on the cheque differs from the drawers specimen signature in the bank.
3. If the cheque is stalc i.e. presented for payment after six months from the date of issue.
4. If the cheque is post dated-meaning the cheque is presented for payment earlier than the date on the cheque
5. If the amount in figures is different from the amount in words
6. If there are alterations on the cheque which are not countersigned by the drawer
7. If the cheque is torn, dirty or defauld making it illegible
8. If the account holder(drawer) is dead and the bank is aware of the fact
9. If the drawer instructs the bank not to pay the particular cheque
10. If the cheque contains errors which need to be corrected
11. If the drawer becomes bankrupt or insane
12. If the drawer has closed his/her account.

Advantages of using cheques  

1. They are more secure than notes and coins because if they are lost or stolen, they can be traced to the person who cashed them.
2. They are convenient to carry and can be used to pay large sum of money which would be otherwise inconvenient to pay using cash
3. They can be transferred to a third party to make payment/cheques are negotiable
4. Payment can be made by cheque without the need to travel to make payment
5. They provide a record of payment because of the counterfaits.The counterfaits acts as proof that payment has been made.
6. Under special circumstances, they can be cashed or discounted before maturity.

Disadvantages of using cheques

1. Cheques can be dishonored
2. Requires the payee to go to the bank and in some cases to have an account
3. The drawer pays some charges e.g. charges for the cheque book
4. Can only be issued by an account holder/the drawer must have an account
5. They are not readily acceptable by everybody
6. They do not provide immediate cash

Circumstances under which a cheque is appropriate as a means of payment

• Where the amount of money involved is large
• Where the policy of the business demands so
• Where a cheque is the only means available
• Where there is need to avoid other risks associated with other means of payments

Bank drafts/Banker’s cheques

-This is a cheque drawn on a bank i.e. a cheque drawn by one bank to another requesting the latter bank to pay a named person or institution a specified sum of money and charge it to the drawing bank
-It can also be drawn by a bank on the request of a customer. The customer fills in an application form obtained from a bank and hands it over to the bank together with the money she wants to transfer and a commission for the service.
-The bank then prepares the cheque and gives it to the applicant who can then send it to the payee
-A bank draft has the drawing bank’s guarantee for payment. It is therefore more readily acceptable than personal cheques.
-It is suitable when urgency is desired in the payment as it is more readily acceptable.

Credit Transfer

This is a means of payment provided by commercial banks to their current accounts holders who want to pay many people using one cheque/at the same time
-One cheque is drawn and is usually accompanied by a list of the people to be paid, the amount to be paid to each person and the addresses of the bank branches where the payment is to be made.
-The bank then ensures that a credit transfer is affected to the various bank branches and each payee is paid
-A credit transfer is usually used by employers to pay salaries to their staff members.

Standing Order

This is an instruction to a bank by an account holder to pay a named person or an organization a fixed amount of money at regular intervals over a specified period of time or until stopped
-It is a very useful means of payment for business people as it enables them to regularly pay their recurrent bills e.g. water, insurance, electricity, loan payment, hire purchase payment e.t.c

Traveler’s Cheques

This is a cheque drawn by one bank to another requesting the latter to pay a specified sum of money to a named bearer, who usually would have bought that cheque from issuing bank. The cheque holder pays the value of the cheque plus the charges for the services to the issuing bank.
-Travellers cheques are usually issued in fixed denominations and are very convenient for travel purposes, hence their name. They enable a person to travel without having to carry a lot of cash. The cheques are also readily acceptable as a means of payment.

Telegraphic Transfers

This is a method /means of transferring money offered by commercial banks to anybody who wants to send money to another. The sender is required to fill an application form and provide the following information among others:
-His/her name -The amount of money to be remitted
-Name of the payee -The bank where the money would be paid. The applicant is charged a commission and telegraph fee. The paying bank sends a telegram to the payee who has to identify himself/herself before the payment is made The method is fast and safe.

Debit Cards

These are plastic cards issued by financial institutions e.g. banks that enables a person to purchase goods and services from any business that accepts them. Debit cards are used to make payments from money held in ones accounts and are therefore an alternative to cash payments. Examples are ATM cards.

Electronic Fund Transfer (E.F.T)

EFT is a method of transferring money from one account to another where computers are used. The sender is required to fill an electronic fund transfer form provided by the bank which instructs the bank to transfer money from his/her account to a named account.
Information is then sent to the payee’s bank electronically and the amount in the account is increased accordingly. The method is very fast.

Means Of Payments Provided By The Post Office

The post office provides means of payments that can be used to transfer money from one person to another.
The means of payments provided by the post office to facilitate payments includes,

1. Money orders
2. Posta pay
3. Postal orders
4. Postage stamps
5. Premium bonds

1. Money orders
   A money order facilitates the transfer of money from one person to another through the post office (and/or bank)
   A money order is usually for a specified sum of money usually purchased with cash from the post office
   A person wishing to send money using this method visits a post office and completes an application form. Some of the details contained/given in the form include:
   
   • The amount of money to be remitted
   • Name of the payee
   • The name of the post office where the money order will be cashed
   • Name and address of the sender
   • Whether the money order is to be ordinary or sent by telegraph
   • Whether the sender wishes to be informed if the money has been paid
   • Whether the money is to be paid through a bank account or at the post office counter.
     The application form, money to be remitted and commission for the service is handed to the post office cleark who prepares the money order and gives it to the sender who may post it or send it to the payee.
     -Telegraphic money orders, the post office sends a telegram to the payee informing him/her to go to the post office and claim the money. -Before payment is made, the payee must;
   • Identify himself/herself by producing an ID card
   • Identify the person who sent the money.
     -The sender of the money is left with a counterfoil which serves as evidence that money was sent and it can be used to reclaim the money if it did not reach the payee
     -Money order may be open or crossed. A crossed money order bears two parallel lines drawn diagonally on its face and must be deposited in the bank account of the payee. It cannot be cashed over the counter at the post office.
     -An open money order can be presented for payment at the post office counter.
     
     Circumstances under which money order is appropriate
     
     1. Where it is the only means available
     2. Where other means are not acceptable
     3. Where there is need to avoid inconveniences or risks associated with other means
2. Posta pay
   This is an Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) service offered by the postal corporation of Kenya, for sending and receiving money instantly from various destinations both locally and internationally.
   -The person sending money fills in a form called ‘send form’ giving the following details;
   
   • Name, address and telephone number of sender
   • Name, address and telephone number of receiver
   • Pay city, town and location of the receiver
   • Signature of the sender
   • Amount to be sent
     -The sender hands over the form, the amount of money to be sent and the commission to the post office clerk for processing
     -The transfer is done via the internet through a machine that gives a twelvedigit number for the transaction called the ‘Transaction control number’(TCN).The sender then conveys this number, amount sent and pay location to the recipient and instructions to the recipient to visit the named post office for payment. This message is usually conveyed through the quickest means possible such as a telephone call
     -The sender is given a copy of the processed ‘send form’ as proof that money has been sent. The post office retains the original for record purposes. -When the receiver visits the post office, he/she will fill a ‘receiver form’ giving the following details;
     
     1. The transaction number(i.e. the twelve-digit number)
     2. The expected amount
     3. The name, address and telephone number of the sender
     4. The city town or location of the sender
     5. Signature of the receiver
        The receiver then identifies himself or herself by producing an ID card or passport before receiving the money.
        
        Advantages of using Posta pay as a means of payment
        
        1. Accessibility-Posta pay outlets (post offices) are located countrywide to eliminate movement over long distances to get money
        2. Ease of use-Sending or receiving money is easy as one only needs to fill a form which is processed immediately
        3. Speed-the transfer of money is instant (fast)
        4. Security-Confidentiality in the transmission of money is provided and money is only paid to the person intended
        5. Convenience-Posta pay services are offered for long hours during the day and pay locations are conveniently located
        6. Affordability-Posta pay services are relatively affordable as large amounts can be sent at reasonable costs.
3. Postal orders
   -Postal orders are sold by the post office for the purpose of remitting money -They are available in fixed denominations of sh.5, 10.20,40,60,80,100 and 200
   -On buying a postal order, the sender pays for both the face value of the postal order and a commission charged for the service
   -Postal orders just like money orders are issued with counterfoils that the sender will keep as evidence of remittance in case the person to whom he/she remits the money does not receive it.
   The sender writes the name of the payee on the postal order as a safety measure.
   Payment to the bearer can be made in any post office with postal order facilities
   Postal orders may also be crossed or open (see crossed and ordinary money orders)

Other Means Of Payment

1. Credit cards
2. Mobile money transfer services e.g. M-pesa.

1. Credit cards(plastic money)
   
   • These are plastic cards that enable a person to purchase goods or services on credit from any business willing to accept the card
   • They are both a means of payment and a term of payment
2. Mobile money transfer services e.g. M-pesa
   
   • This is a means of money transfer services provided by mobile phone service providers to their customers (subscribers)
   • It can only be used to transfer money between people subscribed to the same mobile phone network e.g. from one safaricom subscriber to another safaricom subscriber, Airtel to Airtel e.t.c
   • The sender must register for the money transfer service and is issued with a PIN (personal identification number)
   • When money is sent, both the sender and the receiver will receive a message confirming the transfer.
   • A person can send money anytime anywhere so long as he/she has value in his/her m-pesa, pesa pap account.
   • Each mobile service provider has a range of value that can be transferred using this method.
   • A small transaction fee is charges for the transfer i.e. for sending and withdrawing
     
     Benefits of mobile money transfer services
     
     1. Confidentiality-The secret PIN protects the value in the customer’s account
     2. Ease of use-The service is easy to use as the agents assists to carry out transaction
     3. Speed-Money transfer is an instant service conveyed to the receiver via the short message service(SMS)
     4. Convenience-The service is convenient to both the sender and the receiver, as they only need to go to the nearest agent (money can be sent/deposited or received anywhere)
     5. Accessibility-The agents e.g. m-pesa agents are located in most parts of towns and also in rural areas. Money can hence be sent and received anywhere and anytime.
     6.  Affordability-The service charges are very low for registered users and very affordable for non-registered users
     7. Security-Relatively secure when the sender uses the correct phone number of the receiver

Importance Of Financial Documents In Record Keeping In Business

1. Knowing Your Financial Situation - You need to know where your company stands daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and annually. Are you making money, is your client base increasing or decreasing, do you have enough money in the bank to meet your obligations, are you meeting the goals you set for your business? Without this knowledge, you have little or no control over your business. You need to know how much inventory you have on hand, how much you need to order when you need to order, the credit terms your suppliers offer, the balance in your bank account to cover your payments for running your business such as rent, utilities, office supplies, inventory, employees’ wages, and payroll taxes. Also, you are likely to be in non-compliance with local, state, and federal regulations without proper controls on your finances.
2. Meeting Your Tax Obligations
3. helps to maximize all the expenses you claim and reduce your tax obligations
4. makes it quicker to prepare your accounts at year-end
5. gives you the information you need to run your business and help it grow
6. helps you plan for tax payments
7. helps identify the strengths and weaknesses in your business
8. helps manage changes and improvements in your business
9. will help you plan to meet financial commitments such paying creditors or employees
10. makes it easier to get a loan or sell your business
11. avoids over/under tax payments
12. helps identify if your business is liable for paying VAT to KRA
13. makes it easier to distribute profits to shareholders as dividends or for partnerships where both profits and losses have to be shared.

• Government And Business
  • Reasons For Government Involvement in Business
  • Roles/methods Of Government Involvement In Business
• Taxation In Kenya
  • Purposes/reasons For Taxation
  • Principles of Taxation

Government And Business

• Government involvement in business activities is one of the commercial duties it owes its citizens. It is the one that provides the necessary environment for investments to be undertaken by itself, or by the local and foreign investors. This, the government may do in various ways, these include;
  
  1. Producing goods and services
  2. Distributing goods and services
  3. Advising producers and traders
  4. Promoting trade and economic development
  5. Protecting consumers against exploitation by producers and traders
  6. As a consumer of goods and services

Reasons For Government Involvement In Business

The following are the major reasons for the government’s involvement and participation in business activities;

1. To prevent exploitation of the public by private businesspersons especially in the provision of essential goods and services such as sugar, transport, communication etc. the Kenya Bureau of standards (KEBS) regulates the quality of goods consumed in Kenya.
2. To provide essential goods and services in areas where private individuals and organizations are unwilling to venture because of low profits/ high risks involved.
3. To provide essential goods and services which private organizations and individuals are unable to provide due to the large amount of initial capital required b e.g. generation of electricity, establishment of airlines etc.
4. To attract foreign investment by initiating major business projects
5. To stimulate economic development in the country e.g. by providing social services
6. To provide goods and services which are too sensitive to be left in the hands of the private sector e.g. provision of firearms.
7. To create employment opportunities by initiating projects such as generation of electricity.
8. To prevent foreign dominance of the economy by investing in areas where the locals are not able to
9. To redistribute wealth where returns are very high
10. To prevent establishment of monopolies.

Roles/methods Of Government Involvement In Business

The government gets involved in business activities through the following methods:

1. Regulation
   This refers to Rules and restrictions the government requires business units to follow in their business activities. Through this method, the government ensures high quality goods and services and puts in control measures to protect consumers from exploitation. The government regulation measures include;
   
   1. Licensing
      A license is a document that shows that a business has been permitted by the government to operate. It is usually issued upon payment of a small fee. Licensing is the process of issuing licenses to businesses. Some of the reasons why the government issues licenses include;
      
      • Regulating the number of businesses in a given place at any given time to avoid unhealthy competition.
      • To control the type of goods entering and leaving the country.
      • To ensure there are no illegal businesses.
      • To ensure that traders engage only in trade activities that they have been licensed for.
      • To ensure that those who engage in professional activities meet the requirements of the profession.
      • To raise revenue for the government.
   2. Ensuring standards/ enforcing standards; The government regulates business activities by setting standards that businesses should and ensuring that the standards are adhered to. To achieve this purpose, the government has established bodies such as;
      
      • Kenya bureau of standards (KEBS) whose main responsibility is to set standards especially for the manufactured goods and see to it that the set standards are adhered to/ met. Goods that meet such standards are given a diamond mark of quality, to show that they are of good quality.
      • The ministry of public health to ensure that businesses meet certain standards as concerning facilities before such businesses can be allowed to operate. Such standards may include clean toilets, clean water and well aerated buildings.
   3. Legislation; The Government may come up with rules and regulations (laws) that regulate business activities e.g. banning hawking in certain areas, matatus required to carry certain number of passengers e.t.c.
2. Training
   The government takes keen interest in training and advising people in business about business management strategies and better ways of producing goods and services. The government offers these services through seminars and courses. This is mainly done by the Kenya Business Training Institute (K.B.T.I).
3. Trade promotion
   This is a government initiated and supported policy to encourage local business people to enter into business. This is aimed at increasing the volume and variety of goods and services traded in. Trade promotion is classified as either external trade promotion or internal trade promotion.

Legal Requirements for Starting and operating a simple business in Kenya

• Business Permit
  A business permit indicates that you are licensed to operate by the local county government.
• KRA PIN
  A Kenya Revenue Authority PIN is among the legal requirements that you need to start a business in Kenya. It is used to facilitate tax compliance with all Kenyans and businesses required to file their tax returns yearly.

Taxation In Kenya

Tax: is a compulsory payment by either individuals or organizations to the government without any direct benefit to the payer.
Taxation-refers to the process through which the government raises revenue by collecting taxes.

Purposes/reasons For Taxation

1. Raising revenue for government expenditure. This is the main reason for taxation.
2. Discouraging /controlling consumption of certain commodities e.g. alcohol and cigarattes which are considered to be harmful.
3. Discouraging importation of certain commodities in order to protect local industries. This is done by imposing heavy taxes on such commodities.
4. Controlling inflation. Taxation reduces money supply by reducing peoples ‘disposable’ income thereby controlling inflation.
5. Reducing inequality in income distribution; this is done by taxing the rich heavily and using the finances raised in provision of goods and services that benefit the poor.
6. Influencing locations of businesses. This is done by taxing businesses located in urban areas heavily and those in rural areas lightly hence businesses moving to rural areas.
7. Correcting unfavorable balance of payments. High taxes are imposed on imported commodities thereby discouraging their importation leading to an improvement in the balance of payments.
8. To protect the key selectors of the economy such as the agricultural sector, by stimulating their growth.

Factors that determine the amount of money raised through taxation

1. Distribution of incomes
2. Social and political factors
3. Honesty and efficiency of tax authorities
4. Citizens level of real income
5. Economic structure of the country i.e. relative size of the country’s commercial and subsistence sectors.

Principles Of Taxation

These are the characteristics that a good tax system should have. They are also referred to as the cannons of taxation.

A good tax system should be;

• Equitable/principle of equity-Every subject of the state should pay tax in proportion to their income.
• Certain/principle of certainty-The tax that an individual should pay should be clear in terms of the amount, time and manner in which it should be paid. The government should also be fairly certain of the amount of tax expected so that planning can be easier.
• Convenient/principle of convenience-Tax levied ought to be convenient to both the contributor and collector, it should be levied at a time when the payer has money and mode of payment should be convenient to both the payer and the payee
• Economical/principle of economy-The cost of collecting and administering the tax should be lower than the tax so collected.
• Flexible/principle of flexibility-It should be readily adaptable to changing economic times i.e. when the economic conditions of the people improve it should give raised revenue e.g. VAT
• Ability to pay/non-oppressive-A tax system should be designed in a way that the amount charged is not too high to the extent that the contributors are unable to pay or is discouraged from working hard.
• Diversified/principle of diversity-There should be different types of taxes so that the tax burden is on different groups in the society. This also ensures that the government has money at all times.
• Simplicity-A good tax system should be simple enough to be understood by each tax payer. This will motivate them to pay tax.
• Elastic/principle of elasticity-The tax system should be able to generate more revenue for the government by targeting items of mass consumption.

• Business Activities
  • Needs and Wants
  • Scarcity, Choice, Scale of preference and opportunity cost
  • Types Of Business Activities
  • Business Objectives
• Goods and Services
  • Types of Goods and Services
  • Classification of Goods and Services
• Economic Resources
  • Characteristics Of Economic Resources
  • Types of Economic Resources in Kenya
  • Sustainable Ways Of Using Economic Resources
  • Importance Of Economic Resources
• Business Communication
  • Importance of Business Communication
  • Business Communication Methods
• Production of Goods and Services
  • Importance of Production
  • Characteristics of Factors of Production
• Marketing of Goods and Services
  • Types of Markets
  • Marketing
  • Consumers
  • ICT platforms for marketing Goods and services

Business Activities

Needs And Wants

Scarcity, Choice, Scale of preference and opportunity cost

The basic concept or elements of economics are:

• wants,
• scarcity,
• scale of preference,
• choice and
• opportunity cost.

WANTS

Wants simply means the desire or wish to own goods or services that give satisfaction. Goods include things such as cars, radios, food, houses, books, etc., (that is tangible commodities), while services includes hair dressing, the services of an actor, etc(that is intangible commodities). Want s are also called ENDS.

As these basic needs are satisfied, other needs will arise. That is why we say that human wants are insatiable. This is because human wants are unlimited while resources used in satisfying them are limited.

SCARCITY

Scarcity refers to the limited available resources used in satisfying the unlimited human wants.

These resources are scarce relative to their demand. It is as a result of scarcity of resources that needs the study of economics very essential in order to find alternative uses of these scarce resources. The available resources cannot satisfy all human wants. Since human wants are unlimited or insatiable relative to the available resources, we have to choose the most pressing ones and leave others that are less important because resources are scare.

As a student you will need to buy school materials, e.g exercise books worth #100.00 but you have only #50.00. it can be seen that the money you have (#50.00), which is your resources, will not be sufficient to buy all you need. The available resources within the environment can never at any time be in abundance to satisfy all human wants.

If resources were to be unlimited or abundant, no economics problem would arises and there would be no need for a study of economics. Scarcity is the central or basic economic problems

SCALE OF PREFERENCE

Scale of preference refers to a list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of their relative importance.

A scale of preference refers to a list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of priority or importance. This aids decision-making. The most pressing needs are ranked first followed by the less pressing ones. In other words, it is a list showing the order in which we want to satisfy our wants arrange in order of priority.

The drawing of scale of preference will make it easier for choice to be made. In order to achieve maximum satisfaction with limited resources at their disposal, an individual, firm and unsatisfied wants in order of priority.

Each individual is assumed to have a scale of preference. This is because economics theory assumes that people always behave rationally and would satisfy their most pressing want first.

For example, a student might rank his wants in following order according to their level of importance:

1. Pair of school uniform
2. Exercise books
3. Wrist watch
4. Dictionary
5. Scientific calculator
6. An arm chair

If he is to choose between items 1 and 4, he chooses the first. Scale of preference of individuals, firms and the government differ from time to time.

IMPORTANCE OF SCALE OF PREFERENCE

• Ranking of needs
• Financial prudence
• Identification of highest priority
• Rational choice
• Efficient utilization of limited resources
• Optimum allocation of resources
• Maximization of satisfaction

The importance of scale of preference can be paraphrased this way also:

• It helps individuals to rank their needs in order of importance.
• It helps us to manage our resources properly.
• It helps both individuals and government to identify the most important needs.
• It enhances optimum allocation of resources.
• It helps individuals, firms and government in the efficient utilization of resources.
• It helps economic agents to maximize their satisfaction.
• It helps individuals to make rational decision.

CHOICE

Choice can be defined as a system of selecting or choosing one out of a number of alternatives. Human wants are many and we cannot satisfy all of them because of our limited resources.

We therefore, decide which of the wants we can satisfy first. Choice arises as a result of numerous human wants and the scarcity of the resources used in satisfying these wants.

OPPORTUNITY COST

Opportunity cost is also known as a real cost or time cost.

The concept of opportunity cost is used in economics to express cost in terms of foregone or sacrificed alternatives. Opportunity cost means the alternative foregone or sacrifice made in order to satisfy another want. It is the satisfaction of one’s want at the expense of another want.

Types Of Business Activities

People carry out different business activities in order to earn income.

Business activities are activities which involve the provision of goods or services with an aim of earning a profit.

Activities done without the intention of making profit are referred to as

non-business activities. Business activities may be grouped into the following seven categories:

1. Extraction
   This involves obtaining goods from their natural setting e.g. mining, farming, lumbering, fishing, quarrying e.t.c
2. Processing
   This involves the conversion of raw materials into more useful products without combining it with other goods. Examples here
   include milling/grinding flour, refining oil, tanning of skins and hides, conversion of iron into steel e.t.c
3. Manufacturing
   This involves combining different raw materials to come up with one final product. Such activities include bread baking, making a table e.t.c
4. Construction
   This involves building of structures such as bridges, ships, aeroplanes, houses, roads, railways e.t.c
5. Distribution of goods
   This refers to the activities involved in moving goods from where they are produced to where they are needed. People
   who carry out distribution are called distributors. Examples of distributors are wholesalers and retailers.
6. Trade-Activities in this category involve the buying and selling of goods with a view of making a profit. People involved in trade are called traders.
7. Provisions of Services-Activities in this category involve human acts which could be mental or physical. These include activities such as haircutting, hair styling, car-washing, nursing, teaching, driving, and entertaining e.t.c.

Purpose of Business activity

• Provides goods and services from limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants
• Scarcity is the result of the economic problem – limited resources and unlimited wants
• Choice is necessary for scarce resources. This leads to opportunity costs
• Specialization is required to make the most out of sources

Business activity

• Combines factors of production to create goods and services
• Goods and services satisfy peoples’ wants
• Employs people and pays them wages so they can consume other products

Business Objectives

All businesses have objectives or aims to achieve. Their objectives may vary depending on the type of business and the situation the business is in. The most common objectives are:

• Profit: Profit is what keeps a company going and is the main objective of most businesses. Normally a business will try to obtain a satisfactory level of profits so they do not have to work long hours to pay too much tax.
• Increase added value: Value added is the difference between the price and material costs of a product. E.g.: If the price when selling a pen is Ksh. 3 and it costs Ksh.1 in material, the value added would be Ksh.2. However, this does not take in account overheads and taxes. Added value could be increased by working on products so that they become more expensive finished products. One easy example of this is a mobile phone with a camera would sell for much more than one without it. Of course, you will need to pay for the extra camera but as long as prices rise more than costs, you get more profit.
• Growth: Growth can only be achieved when customers are satisfied with a business. When businesses grow they create more jobs and make them more secure when a business is larger. The status and salary of managers are increased. Growth also means that a business is able to spread risks by moving to other markets, or it is gaining a larger market share. Bigger businesses also gain cost advantages, called economies of scale.
• Survival: If a business do not survive, its owners lose everything. Therefore, businesses need to focus on his objective the most when they are: starting up, competing with other businesses, or in an economic recession.
• Service to the community: This is the primary goal for most government owned businesses. They plan to produce essential products to everybody who need them.
  These business objectives or aims can conflict because different people in a business want different things at different times.

Goods And Services

Types Of Goods And Services

We desire to have all the things to satisfy our present and future wants. Thus, our desire is for all those things that satisfy our wants.

All these things are either material goods or services. If something is not wanted by anybody it will not be called a good or service.

Therefore, we can divide the things that we wants into two categories:

1. Goods and
2. Services.

Goods are material things wanted by human beings. They can be seen or touched. Services are non-material things. These cannot be seen or touched only their effects are felt. When we are hungry, we take food. When we fall sick, we take medicines. When we study, we use book, notebook, pen, paper etc. All these are examples of goods which satisfy some of our wants. All the things which satisfy human wants are good.

However, wants for haircut, washing of cloths, mending of shoes, stitching of cloths, studying in a school or a college etc. are not satisfied by goods. These are satisfied by the services performed by a barber, washer man, cobbler, tailor and teacher etc. So some of our wants are satisfied by goods and some by services. Hence, all the human wants can be satisfied by goods and services.

Classification of Goods and Services:

Goods and services are of many types. However, these can be classified into some broad groups.
These are discussed below:

1. Free Goods and Economic goods:
   The goods which have unlimited supply and are provided as free gift of nature. The goods which are not man-made and do not have to pay anything to get them. These goods are known as ‘Free Goods’. For example, air, sea, water, sunlight, sand in the desert etc. On the other hand, goods like vegetables, grains, minerals, fruits, fishes etc. which are neither man-made nor unlimited supply of nature are known as ‘Economic Goods’ All these goods are sold and purchased in the market only.
2. Free Services and Economic Services:
   Services which cannot be bought in the market and which are only rendered out of love, affection etc. are known as ‘Free Services’. For example, all services given by the parents to their children are free services. However, all the services that can be bought in the market are ‘Economic Services’. Services rendered by doctors, teachers, lawyers, barbers, cobblers etc. are the example of economic services.
3. Consumer Goods and Capital Goods:
   The goods which are directly used by the consumer for the purposes of consumption are known as ‘Consumer Goods’ The example of consumer goods are bread, biscuit, butter, jam, rice, fish, egg, shoes, shirts, fan, book, pen, cooking gas etc. On the other hand, all the goods which are not directly used to satisfy consumption but which are used in further production are called ‘Producer Goods’ or ‘Capital Goods’. The examples are seeds, fertilizers, tools, machines, raw materials etc.
4. Consumer Services and Producer Services:
   When services are used directly by consumers to satisfy their wants, they are called consumer services. When services are used by producers to produce other goods and services, they are called producer services. When the tailor stitches our shirt, it is a consumer service However when the tailor stitches a shirt for a readymade garments shop, the service rendered by him is a producer service.
5. Single Use and Durable Use Goods:
   Goods (both consumer goods and producer goods) which are only used or consumed for single time or only once are known as single use goods. Bread, milk, fruits, vegetables etc. are the example of single use consumer goods. On the other hand, seeds, fertilizers, raw materials etc. are the example of single use producer goods.
   Some goods (both consumer goods and producer goods) can be used for a considerable period, that is, they can be used again and again. They are called durable use goods. For example, table, chair, cloths, shoes etc. are the durable use consumer goods. On the other hand, tube wells, tractors, pump-sets etc. are the example of durable use producer goods,
6. Private Goods and Public Goods:
   On the basics of ownership goods can be classified into two groups. All the goods which are owned by private bodies are called private goods. For example, a car, a house, a motor­bike, a mobile phone, books, a television set etc. are the private goods.
   There are large number of goods which are collectively owned by the society, the public or the government. These are called public or government goods. For example, roads, bridges, hospitals, government schools etc. are the public goods or the social goods or the government goods.

Economic Resources

Characteristics Of Economic Resources

• Have utility - they have ability to be used
• Have money value - They have a value at which they can be exchanged for ownership
• Have alternative use - They can be put into different uses.
• Scarce in supply - They are not available in sufficient quantities
• Can be combined - They can be combined so as to produce different goods and services
• Can change ownership - Differennt resources can be used together.
• They are distributed - they are available in varying quantities at different places.

Types Of Economic Resources In Kenya

What Are Economic Resources?

Economic resources are the different factors of production used to produce all goods and services in the economy. Economic theory is primarily concerned with allocating these resources so that the production of goods and services is done most efficiently and effectively.

There are four general types of economic resources:

• Land or natural resources
• Labor
• Capital
• Entrepreneurial ability

Sustainable Ways Of Using Economic Resources

Economic sustainability is the practice of conserving natural and financial resources to create long-term financial stability. A system that's sustainable can last far into the future with minimal negative impacts.

In finance, this can mean reducing the worldwide consumption of valuable resources to ensure they're available to future generations to create financial stability and wealth. For example, by reducing the usage of fossil fuels and focusing on alternative fuel sources, companies, governments and consumers can help reduce the global impact of emissions and pollution from fossil fuels.

Here are some examples of economic stability:

Alternative energy

Alternative energy sources, such as wind power, solar power and hydropower, can offer a more sustainable, clean and affordable solution to energy needs. Much of the world depends on fossil fuels like coal, oil and gasoline, which have a limited supply and create greenhouse gas emissions.

Alternative energy sources depend on infinite natural processes or resources, which may make them more sustainable and affordable in the long term. Reducing fossil fuel consumption can help reduce tax burdens for consumers, decrease the costs of environmental impacts and create more energy equity among low-income populations, which can increase economic productivity.

Sustainable agriculture

Many farms are adopting sustainable agricultural practices to reduce soil degradation, which occurs from over-farming, and to reduce animal product consumption. Reducing food consumption and focusing on regenerative farming can help improve soil health, crop yields and the quality of farmed food and resources.

Regenerative farming is a practice farmers use to rotate crops for better soil health, instead of farming the same crops, like corn, all year. Improving soil health and reducing animal product consumption can help keep food costs low, reduce carbon emissions and environmental damage and encourage better habits.

Recycling and pollution reduction

Recycling and reducing pollution is a common economic and environmental stability practice that can help increase the value of materials. For example, a company producing aluminum cans can sustain operations by recycling used cans and creating molten aluminum for recasting, instead of mining for aluminum ore.

This practice can reduce the company's environmental impact, saving the region both cleanup and restoration costs and reducing the organization's mining costs. Reducing pollution can also help reduce worldwide cleanup and restoration costs and the costs of climate change.

Sustainable fisheries

Creating more sustainable fisheries can help reduce the environmental and economic impact of overfishing the oceans. Side effects of overfishing can include population declination, bycatch, or catching other species along with fish, and fishing equipment made of plastics and other materials discarded in waterways.

Adopting more sustainable practices, like reducing fish consumption worldwide and reducing bycatch and fishing pollution, could create a more sustainable fishing environment, resulting in more stable profits and economic health for the fishing industry. It can also help ocean populations recover, which is crucial for ecosystems across the globe.

Resource Mapping

Resource mapping is a strategy for identifying and analyzing the programs, people, services, and other resources that currently exist in the country. This information can help leaders better assess the needs of the country and to make informed decisions about where to focus change efforts.

Mapping Steps

1. Reach consensus on the parameters of the map—select a goal to map.
2. Select the data to be collected based on these parameters—determine what types of resources you would like to collect.
3. Develop tools to collect your data.
4. Collect data with help from stakeholders.
5. Conduct a community (or environmental) scan.
6. Synthesize, analyze, and interpret your data.
7. Communicate your findings.
8. Set priorities.
9. Develop related products.

Importance Of Economic Resources

Resources are significant because:

1. They satisfy human wants both individual and social,
2. They are a source or possibility of assistance,
3. They are a means of development and support,
4. They are an expedient,
5. They have capacity to take advantage of opportunities, and
6. One relies on them for aid, support and supply.

Business Communication

Communication is an essential element in the success of any business. The process of transferring information from one person to another, within and outside the business environment, is termed as ‘Business Communication.’ The term ‘Business Communication’ is derived from general communication which is associated with business activities. In other terms, communication between business parties or people for business-related tasks is considered as ‘Business Communication.’

Business Communication includes different aspects like marketing, public relations, customer relations, corporate and interpersonal communication, etc.

Basic elements of Business communication:

• Sender
• Business information
• Receiver
• Feedback

Importance Of Business Communication

1. Helps in increasing productivity: Effective business communication increases the productivity of staff by boosting up teamwork. It creates a trustworthy and understanding environment among employers and employees. Effective communication is related to cooperating with employees and understanding their needs and desires. By doing so, employees are able to accomplish their tasks more effectively and efficiently. Also, the scope of doing mistakes or errors during their work minimizes due to effective communication.
2. Helps in increasing customers: Customers are an important part of any business and effective business communication can facilitate in attracting new customers and retain the current customers. A well-defined marketing strategy and public relations campaign run by an organization generates the interest of customers in its goods or services and helps in building the corporate image in customers.
3. Enhances business partnerships: Business Communication also improves partnerships in business. It plays a significant role in dealing with external business clients or vendors. Vendors may be required to communicate on products regularly for improvements. Also, an effective and harmonious relationship with other businesses determines the further success of an organization. A business unit that has developed its image as an entity for easy partnership through its effective communication can attract other business units for forming business relationships with them.
4. Facilitates innovations in business: Effective business communication helps in business innovations as well as it facilitates employees to convey their ideas and suggestions openly. Similarly, at the time of launching any new product in the market, effective communication ensures the performance of the sales team, market acceptance of the product, fast delivery of products in the market, etc.
5. Information exchange: Business communication is required by an organization for exchanging information with internal and external stakeholders. This helps in achieving its goals effectively.
6. Preparation of plans and policies: Through effective business communication, organizations can make their plans and policies properly. Relevant information is required for preparing these plans and policies. Through communication, different managers source information through reliable channels.
7. Helps in solving problems or issues: Through different communication channels, managers get information about different routine and non-routine issues and based upon that they can take required actions to sort out those issues.
8. Facilitates decision-making: Effective decisions require up-to-date information. Using effective communication, managers can acquire information from different sources and can utilize it for making correct decisions.
9. Reduces chances of conflicts: Through effective communication different business parties can exchange information in a smooth way. This results in fewer conflicts, controversies, arguments between them.

Business Communication Methods

Different methods of communicating in a business are as below:

1. In-person (Face-to-Face) Business Communication: In-person communication is the most common and preferred method of business communication. As it is generally in the form of meetings or conferences which is face to face communication format. This requires refined in-person skills. This method also includes non-verbal communication i.e. body language. While having a conversation between two or more people in business, body language like gestures, facial expression, etc. also play a vital role in communicating a person’s attitude towards others.
   
2. Communication by email system: An e-mail has become the most widely used communication system in any business. Due to its feature of sending and receiving mass or multiple messages at a time, email is considered as one of the preferred methods in business communication. It also increases efficiency as emails can be sent and responded in fast mode. The conversation through email can be among two or more than two people and is the best substitute for formal face to face meetings as discussions can be done in an email system.
   
3. Web conferencing: In the web conferencing method of business communication, the internet is being used for communication in meetings, conferences, presentations, seminars, and imparting training. It includes features like sharing of files, screens, real-time chatting, recording, etc. This can be considered as the most effective way of interacting with people sitting at different locations. Web conferencing is done by using the phone (teleconferencing) or video equipment (videoconferencing).
   
4. Written communication: Written business communication is a formal and detailed form of communication than other methods. Different written communication tools include formal letters, brochures, posters, etc.
   
5. Other methods: There are other business communication methods like an instant messaging system. This technology is easy to use as one can easily connect with people while working offsite and have conversations without waiting so long. They also include WhatsApp, phone calls.

Production Of Goods And Services

Production: Refers to the creation of goods and services or increasing their usefulness through activities such as transporting them to where they are required. People who are involved in production of goods and services are referred to as producers.

Importance of Production

• To produce is independence.
  If you don’t produce, you will have to consume what has been produced.
  In this case, you have no choice but to the available options. People choose to be free and independent.
• The need for various goods
• Availability of goods and services: Production helps to ensure that goods and services are made
• Increase in wealth of people: Production assists people to accumulate wealth as a result of continuous employment. importance of production
• Increase in export potential: Production also assists a state or nation to boost her export of goods and services to other nations.
• Acquisition of skills: The engagement of people in production leads them to acquire special skills

Characteristics of Factors of Production

Fig 5.1. The organization of Production

Meaning: Factors of production refer to agents, components or resources which are combined together to produce goods and services. There are four factors of production. These are:

Labour

Labour - is skillful:  Labour becomes skillful through education and training.

• Labour is a human factor: Labour is a human factor hence its supply can easily be controlled== importance of production
• Labour requires motivation: For labour to perform efficiently and increase its productivity, it must be motivated in one way or the other. importance of production
• Labour is not predictable: Labour as a factor of production cannot be easily predicted.
• Labour is not fixed: The supply of labour, unlike land, is not fixed as it varies in quantity and quality.
• Labour is perishable: Knowledge can diminish overtime as a result of continued unemployment, under-employment, age and death.
• Labour controls other factors of production: Labour controls and combines all other factors of production to make them more meaningful to the society.
• Labour has initiative: Labour can act on its own initiative.

Types of labour

• Unskilled
• Semi-skilled
• Skilled
• professional

Classification Of Factors Of Production

Characteristics Of Land As A Factors Of Production

Types of land

• Residential
• Commercial
• Recreation
• Cultivation
• Extraction
• Uninhabitable

1. Fixed supply: The total land area of earth (in the sense of the surface area available to men) is fixed. Therefore, the supply of lands is strictly limited. It is, no doubt, possible to increase the supply of land in a particular region to some extent through reclamation of land from sea areas or deforestation.
2. No cost of production: Since land is a gift of nature, it has no cost of production. Since land is already in existence, no costs are to be incurred in creating it. In this sense, land differs from both labour (which has to be reared, educated and trained) and capital (which has to be created by using labour and other scarce resources or by spending money).
3. Differences in fertility: Another important feature of land is that it is not homogeneous. All grades (plots) of land are not equally productive or fertile. Some grades of land are more productive than others. And Ricardo argued that rent arises not only due to scarcity of land as a factor but also due to differences in the fertility of the soil.
4. Mobility:Land is not geographically mobile. But, it is occupationally mobile. In most parts of India, for example, land has many alternative uses. It might be used for farmland, roads, rail­ways, airlines, public parks, playgrounds, resi­dential housing, office buildings, shopping complex, and so on. Some of the land, for example, in hill area, of say, Shillong, or Darjeeling, has an extremely limited degree of occupational mobility, being useful perhaps for sheep grazing, golf course or as a centre of tourism.
5. Return: The income received by the owner of land is known as rent. It may be noted that rent is usually paid for something more than the use of land or another natural resource, but includes also an element of payment for another factor which is involved in making the resource available in a usable form.

Characteristics of Capital as a factor of production

• Capital is manmade factor of production
• Its mobile
• It’s a passive factor of production

Types of capital

• Fixed
• Working
• venture

Characteristics of an entrepreneur

An entrepreneur is a person who brings factors of production in one place. He uses them for the production process. he is the person who decides:

• What to produce
• Where to produce
• How to produce

A person who takes these decisions along with the associated risk is an entrepreneur.

X-tics of an entrepreneur

• He has imagination
• He has great administrative power
• An entrepreneur must be a man of action
• An entrepreneur must have the ability to organize
• He should be a knowledgeable person
• he must have a professional approach

Consumer concerns addressed in the production of goods and services

Learners to check on this

Marketing of Goods and Services

• A market can be defined as a place where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods, services and other relevant information is called a market. Both these parties can meet in a city, state, province, country and region. The market may be a physical or virtual.
• The one party (seller) sells a product or service to a buyer for money benefits. Most of the time there are more than single buyers and seller in the marketplace. The value and prices of product and service are based on the law demand and supply in the market.

Types of Markets

Physical Markets. Any physical market is a place where buyers and sellers physically meet that involve both parties in a transaction in exchange for money. Few good examples are departmental stores, shopping malls and retail stores

Virtual Markets / Internet Markets. Todays’ business environment such type of markets are increasing on a fast track. It is a place where the seller offers goods and services via online platform i.e. internet. Buyers and sellers are not required to physically meet or interact. Examples are Freelancer.com, Amazon.com.

Auction Market. An auction market is a place where sellers and buyers indicate the lowest and highest prices they are willing to exchange. This exchange takes place when both the sellers and buyers agree on a price. A good example is the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE).

What is Market Size

Market size refers to the total number of people in a specific market who has the potential to buy and sell products and services. Whenever companies launch a new product they are very interested to know the market size. For any market, two factors are very important:

• Total number of buyers and sellers
• Total money in the market on the annual basis

Marketing

Marketing is a process by which a product or service is introduced and promoted to potential customers. Without marketing, your business may offer the best products or services in your industry, but none of your potential customers would know about it. Without marketing, sales may crash and companies may have to close.

Types of Marketing

Where your marketing campaigns live depends entirely on where your customers spend their time. It's up to you to conduct market research that determines which types of marketing -- and which mix of tools within each type -- is best for building your brand. Here are several types of marketing that are relevant today, some of which have stood the test of time:

• Internet marketing: Inspired by an Excedrin product campaign that took place online, the very idea of having a presence on the internet for business reasons is a type of marketing in and of itself.
• Search engine optimization: Abbreviated "SEO," this is the process of optimizing content on a website so that it appears in search engine results. It's used by marketers to attract people who perform searches that imply they're interested in learning about a particular industry.
• Blog marketing: Blogs are no longer exclusive to the individual writer. Brands now publish blogs to write about their industry and nurture the interest of potential customers who browse the internet for information.
• Social media marketing: Businesses can use Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, and similar social networks to create impressions on their audience over time.
• Print marketing: As newspapers and magazines get better at understanding who subscribes to their print material, businesses continue to sponsor articles, photography, and similar content in the publications their customers are reading.
• Search engine marketing: This type of marketing is a bit different than SEO, which is described above. Businesses can now pay a search engine to place links on pages of its index that get high exposure to their audience. (It's a concept called "pay-per-click" -- I'll show you an example of this in the next section).
• Video marketing: While there were once just commercials, marketers now put money into creating and publishing all kinds of videos that entertain and educate their core customers.

The 4 Ps of Marketing

Essentially, these 4 Ps explain how marketing interacts with each stage of the business.

Consumers

A consumer is any individual or group that uses goods or services. Generally, this means an individual who pays for goods or services, although sometimes the good or service is not paid for, but is instead received as a gift or favor. Usually, the term is used when referring to the demand side of the market. For example, in economics, it is often said that consumers are influenced by price when they make their buying decisions.

Following are the things that customers look at for before buying a product.

1. Price: The price of the product is the first thing that almost 80% of the customers look at before buying a product. Because every customer has their own budget and they usually tend to spend within the budget unless they get some extraordinary quality.
2. Experience: Nowadays, everyone is busy and they want to buy things which are easily available and also there are so many alternatives available in the market for a certain product. Therefore, it is important to make the shopping experience as well as the quality of the product excellent. So, they don’t move to some other product.
3. Design: Design of the product should be attractive.
4. Functionality: The product should have all the functionalities that a customer expects while buying a product.
5. Convenience: The product and services should be convenient for the customer, otherwise, he/she will not buy the product.
6. Reliability: The product should be reliable and it should meet the customer’s needs every single time.
7. Compatibility: The product should be compatible with the other products that the customer is already using.

Following is a list of different types of customers.

1. Need-based customers :
   
   These customers shop for only specific products when they need them. They already know the section they are heading to when they enter a store. They usually don’t require an assistant to choose a product because they usually have knowledge about the product they want to buy. Therefore, it is very important to approach them with a planned strategy.
2. Loyal customers :
   
   These types of customers are very important for a business. This segment of the customers should be kept satisfied. They not only stay loyal to the company but also praise and recommend the product to their family and friends. Therefore, they also help the company to market its product by “word -of – mouth” free of cost. Usually, this segment of customers is small and they hardly make 20% of the total customers, but they are responsible for generating the maximum part of the total revenue of the company.
3. Discount customers :
   These are the types of customers who never buy a product on full price. They always look for a discount on the product they want to buy. Such customers never shop for anything off-sale. These types of customers make the biggest portion of total customers of a company. Discount customers are the least loyal customers and they easily move on when getting better offers by some other company.
4. Impulsive customers :
   
   Impulsive customers’ segment is a bonus segment for any business, as these customers don’t shop as per their need or because of ongoing sale. The shopping of these types of customers is highly influenced by their current mood. They usually tend to buy a product, if, at the time of shopping, they find it useful and good at that point in time.
5. Potential customers:
   Potential customers are not your customer yet, but they just need a little bit of convincing and assistance to make a purchase. These types of customers need a little bit of encouragement and attention before buying your product. To deal with such customers, you should show them some value and assist them by providing information about the products they are interested in.

Factors to consider when selecting a suitable market for goods and services

1. The product to be sold or produced
2. Personnel to manage the business
3. Amount of finance and other resources required
4. The market to be served (customers)
5. Types of employees required
6. Projection (level of achievement in future in terms of profit)
7. The name for the business

An attractive market has the following characteristics:

• It is sizeable (large) enough to be profitable given your operating cost. Only a tiny fraction of the consumers in China can afford to buy cars. However, because the country’s population is so large (nearly 1.5 billion people), more cars are sold in China than in Europe (and in the United States, depending on the month). Three billion people in the world own cell phones. But that still leaves three billion who don’t (Corbett, 2008).
• It is growing. The middle class of India is growing rapidly, making it a very attractive market for consumer products companies. People under thirty make up the majority of the Indian population, fueling the demand for “Bollywood” (Indian-made) films.
• It is not already swamped by competitors, or you have found a way to stand out in a crowd. IBM used to make PCs. However, after the marketplace became crowded with competitors, IBM sold the product line to a Chinese company called Lenovo.
• Either it is accessible or you can find a way to reach it. Accessibility, or the lack of it, could include geographic accessibility, political and legal barriers, technological barriers, or social barriers. For example, to overcome geographic barriers, the consumer products company Unilever hires women in third-world countries to distribute the company’s products to rural consumers who lack access to stores.
• The company has the resources to compete in it. You might have a great idea to compete in the wind-power market. However, it is a business that is capital intensive. What this means is that you will either need a lot of money or must be able to raise it. You might also have to compete with the likes of T. Boone Pickens, an oil tycoon who is attempting to develop and profit from the wind-power market. Does your organization have the resources to do this?
• It “fits in” with your firm’s mission and objectives. Consider TerraCycle, which has made its mark by selling organic products in recycled packages. Fertilizer made from worm excrement and sold in discarded plastic beverage bottles is just one of its products. It wouldn’t be a good idea for TerraCycle to open up a polluting, coal-fired power plant, no matter how profitable the market for the service might be.

ICT platforms for marketing Goods and services

They include:

• Online advertising – many businesses advertise through banners on websites. It provides to the customers quickly and easy response.
  
• Email marketing – it’s a form of direct marketing. It’s very fast and less expensive.
• Social media marketing – it’s a collection of online communication channels. It’s a community based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. Examples include: Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Tiktok
  
• Blogging –
  
• Target marketing- it’s about attracting a customer who will buy what you are selling.
  

Advantages

• Anywhere, anytime marketing
• Cost effective
• Fast

By using ICT, we can market anywhere, anytime in the world without being their physically.

• Marketing products on the internet costs less than marketing them through a physical retail outlet.
  
• The internet provides an important platform for building relationships with customers and increasing retention levels
  
• It is very fast
• User can get easily information about product.

• Human Origin
  • Traditional Stories On Human Origin
  • Religious Stories On Human Origin
  • Factors Proving That Africa Is The Cradle Of Humankind
• Evolution
  • Stages of Man's Evolution 

Human Origin

Traditional Stories On Human Origin

This is an attempt by communities of people to explain their origin.
It is given through Oral Traditions, myths and legends.
It mainly states that the first people were created by God

1. Kikuyu community
   According to the Agikuyu, God (Ngai) appeared and created their ancestors (Gikuyu and Mumbi) at Mukurwe Wa Gathanga near present day Muranga
   Gikuyu and Mumbi gave birth to 9 daughters who later formed the nine class
2. Bukusu
   The bukusu of wetern Kenya belives that the fist man was called Mwambu.
   He was made from mud by WELE KHAKABA (God the creator) at a place called Mumbo which means west.
   God created a wife for him. Mwambu and his wife moved from Mumbo to the foothills of Mt. Masaba-mt elgon- where their descendants grew in numbers to become the Abaluhya community
3. Maasai
   Once upon a time Enkai (God) owned all the cattle in the world. One day he opened the sky and replaced all the cattle he owned from heaven to earth using a long rope.
   Enkai created 3 communities on earth
   The Torrobo(also the Ogiek) , the gikuyu whom God bless with seed and grain and the Maasai whom God blessed with all the cattle of the world
4. Akamba community
   The akamba community believes that God was called Mulungu. He created the first man MUNDU and woman KIVETI.
   They were then placed on top of Nzaui Hill in makueni.
   He blessed them with children and livestock
5. Nandi community
   According to the Nandi, the first two people came from the knees of a giant man, which began to swell until they burst. A man came from one knee and a woman from the other. These became the ancestors of the Nandi-speaking people of Kenya. This is an example of myths in certain communities that do not directly refer to God‟s creation.

Religious Stories On Human Origin

This presents man and everything else as having been created by God.
It is contained mainly in

1. The Bible (used by Christians)
   God created the heaven and earth according to Genesis chapter 2
2. The Quran (used by Muslims).
   Islam believes that all living and non living things were created by Allah
3. Hindu
   The universe was created by Brahma. He is regarded as the hindu god of creation

Factors Proving That Africa Is The Cradle Of Humankind

• African Savannas were ideal for primates.
• The moist, warm and varied climate supported animal and plant life.
• Archaeological sites were discovered in the Great Lakes region of eastern Africa and along the Great Rift Valley. This confirms that hominids were living in this region by the time the rift valley was being formed.
• The earliest apes and various animals may have first lived around what is now Lake Victoria and the rift valley, then some went northwards into Europe and Asia. This was because, at that time, areas along the Equator (especially central and west Africa) were covered in thick forest. Around the Great lakes of East Africa was the Savannah (grassland with scattered trees and bushes). It was in this environment that man had his first home.
• Due to earth quakes and volcanic eruptions during the formation of the great rift valley, allot of dust was brought up, which covered places where hominids had left their weapons, tools, their own bones, and those of other animals. These became archaeological sites in east Africa
• Remains found in Africa especially Eastern Africa are evidence that Africa is the cradle of mankind.
•   
•  

Evolution

Evolution is a natural process of gradual and continuous change of living organisms from a lower (simpler) state to a better-adapted (complex) and superior one.
Archaeological site or prehistoric site
Is a place where human remains were found
Archaeologists
Are scientists who excavated the human remains for study
Fossils
Human remains

Stages Of Man’s Evolution

1. Ramapithecus also called kenyapithecus
   The 15-12 million year-old remains of Ramapithecus were found by Mary and Louis Leakey at Fort Ternan near kericho and also at Samburu hills and in the Lakes Turkana and Baringo basins. Ramapithecus and other manlike creatures were also discovered in Europe, India and China.
   Characteristics of Ramapithecus
   
   • He was manlike.
   • He had small canines.
   • He was quadrapedal (he moved on his four limbs), though he occasionally walked on two legs
2. Australopithecus/southern ape/zinjathropus
   Remains of Australopithecus were found at Taung in Botswana in 1924 by Raymond Dart, at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959 and throughout eastern Africa e.g. regions around Lake Natron in Tanzania, Lake Turkana in Kenya and Omo River valley in Ethiopia.
   Characteristics of Australopithecus
   • He was the earliest most manlike hominid.
   • He had a pelvis and leg that were similar to modern man‟s.
   • He was bipedal (walked on two limbs).
   • Could defend themselves.
   • Could attack their enemies.
   • Could see or sense impending danger from a distance.
   • Could grasp objects with ease.
   • May have been hairy, short and strong.
   • Had a large face and low forehead.
   • Had stereoscopic vision.
   • Had much larger teeth, skull and jaws.
   • His brain was smaller than modern man‟s, but larger than that of the most intelligent ape: the Gorilla.
3. Homo habilis (Practical man).
   This was the first species of the genus Homo. His two and a half to one and a half million- year old remains were found at Olduvai Gorge by Jonathan Leakey in 1964, Hadar and Omo River valley in Ethiopia and Koobi-For a in the lake Turkana area in 1972.
   Characteristics of Homohabilis
   • He was five feet tall.
   • He had a skull similar to modern man‟s in shape.
   • He was omnivorous.
   • He could grasp objects.
   • He made and used tools.
4. HOMOERECTUS (upright man).
   Homoerectus lived between two million to two hundred thousand years ago.
   • He was five and a half feet tall.
   • He was bipedal (walked on two legs).
   • He made and used tools, such as hand-axes, crude spears and arrowheads from stone, bone and wood.
5. Homo sapiens (Thinking/Intelligent man).
   Homo sapien appeared between two hundred thousand and a hundred and fifty thousand years ago.
   Characteristics of Homosapien
   • He was under six feet tall
   • He had small teeth.
   • He had a steep and well-rounded forehead.
   • He had long straight legs.
   • He made a variety of more refined tools i.e. microliths.
   • He was a fisherman and hunter-gatherer.
   • He domesticated plants and animals.
   • Remains of Homosapien were found at:
     
     • Eliye springs near Lake Turkana,
     • Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya,
     • Bodo and Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
     • Ngaloba in Tanzania.

• The Earth And The Solar System
  • The Origin of the Solar System
  • The Position Of The Earth In The Solar System
• Rotation Of The Earth
  • Effects of Rotation of the Earth
• Revolution of the Earth
  • Effects Of The Revolution Of The Earth
• The Internal Structure Of The Earth

The Earth And The Solar System

Solar system is the group of heavenly bodies comprising the sun and the planets.

The Origin Of The Solar System

1. The passing star theory
   A star with a greater gravitational pull passed near the sun
   It attracted large quantities of gaseous materials from the sun
   The materials split, cooled and condensed to form planets
   The planets were set in orbit by the passing star
2. The nebula cloud theory
   There was a slowly rotating cloud of dust and gas called Nebula
   It cooled and began to contact
   Rotation speed increased and successive rings of gaseous materials were formed.
   The rings condensed to form planets
   The central gaseous material remained as the sun

Size of the earth

Equatorial diameter-12756km
Equatorial circumference-40085km
Polar diameter-39995km
Surface area of the earth-510×10⁶ km²
Water surface - 73%.

Mercury
Nearest from the sun
Its 58m km from the sun
Has no satellites
Takes approximately 88 earth days to revolve around the sun

Venus
2^nd planet from the sun
It’s 108m km from the sun
One of the brightest planets
Can be seen clearly with naked eyes
Takes approximately 225 earth days to revolve around the sun
Slightly smaller than the earth
Has no satellites
Together with the earth they are called twin planets due to having many similarities

Mars
Also called The Red Planet because when it’s observed through a telescope it appears reddish.
The 4^th from the sun
Slightly smaller than the earth
Approximately 228m km from the sun
Takes 687 earth days to revolve around the sun
Between Mass and Jupiter there are small celestial bodies called planetoids.
Has no satellite.

Jupiter
5^th planet from the sun
Approximately 778m km from the sun
Largest in the universe
Rotates on its own axis at very fast speed
Has flattened poles due to its fast speed of rotation
Has very thick layers of ice on its surface
takes 12 earth years to revolve around the sun
Has 16 satellites

Saturn
6^th planet from the sun
Second largest planet
Approximately 1427m km from the sun
Takes 29 ½ earth years to revolve around the sun
Has a ring around it
Has 18 satellites

Uranus
7^th planet from the sun
About 4 times bigger than the earth
Approximately 2870m km from the sun
Also rotates very fast
Also has flattened poles due to fast speed of rotation
It appears greenish foe being surrounded by methane gas
Has 8 satellites
Takes 84 earth years to revolve around the sun

Neptune
One of the farthest from the sun
8^th planet from the sun
Approximately 4497m km from the sun
Has 8 satellites
Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun
Very similar in size, colour and character with Uranus

The shape of the earth

The shape of the earth is called geoid/ovoid/oblate spheroid due to being an imperfect sphere by being wide at the equator and flat at the poles.

The Position Of The Earth In The Solar System

The 3^rd planet from the sun
The earth and the heavenly bodies make the universe
The only planet that supports life
The home of man
Approximately 149m km from the sun
Takes 365 ¼ days to revolve around the sun
Has one satellite, the moon

Rotation Of The Earth

Movement of the earth on its own axis (imaginary line through the centre from N pole to S pole
Rotates through 360º
Takes 24 hours (day) to complete 1 rotation
Rotates in an anticlockwise direction (west to east)

Effects of Rotation of the Earth

1. Creates day and night because at any one time one side of the earth faces the sun (day) and the other remains in darkness (night).
2. Causes deflection of winds and ocean currents in the N hemisphere to the left and in the S hemisphere to the right.
3. It causes rising and falling of ocean tides.
4. Causes time difference between longitudes

Effects of Rotation of the Earth on human activities

Revolution Of The Earth

• Movement of the earth in its orbit around the sun.
• It’s in anticlockwise direction.
• The orbit of the earth’s revolution is elliptical.
• Takes 365 ¼ days in a year or 366 days in a leap year (every 4 years).
• The sun moves from the tropic of cancer to the equator and then towards tropic of Capricorn and back to the tropic of cancer.
• 21^st march and 23^rd September are called equinoxes because the length of day and night is equal. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the equator.
• 21^st June is called summer solstice because its summer in the N hemisphere. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the tropic of cancer.
• 22^nd December is called winter solstice because its winter in the S. hemisphere. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at noon at the tropic of Capricorn.
• Solstice is the period of maximum tilting of the earth towards the sun.
  

Effects Of The Revolution Of The Earth

1. Causes the four seasons summer, autumn, winter and spring due to the movement of overhead sun causing changes in the heat belt.
2. Causes variation of day and night’s lengths due to the earth’s axis being inclined to the path of revolution at an angle of 60◦.
   
   1. Equinoxes have equal lengths of day and night.
   2. Summers have longer days and shorter nights.
   3. Winters have longer nights and shorter days.
      
3. Causes changes in the altitude of the midday sun due to the earth’s orbit being elliptical.
   
   • Highest altitude during equinox
   • Lowest altitude during solstices
4. Causes lunar eclipse due to revolution bringing the earth in line with the sun and the moon.

Effects of the Revolution of the earth on human activities

The Internal Structure Of The Earth

1. Crust/Lithosphere
   
   • Outermost layer of the earth
   • Made of soils and other loose deposits of sand
   • The dominant rocks are granites.
   • Extends 0-50km
   • Has 2 layers
     
     1. Sial
        
        • Also called continental crust
        • Made of light coloured rocks
        • Called sial because it’s made up of silica and aluminium.
     2. Sima
        
        • Also called oceanic crust
        • Mainly made of basaltic rocks which are brittle.
        • Called sima because it is made of silica magnesium and iron.
2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho)
   • A definite zone of discontinuity between the crust and the mantle.
   • Was discovered by Dr. Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909.
3. The Mantle/Asthenosphere
   • Layer lying between the crust and the core
   • Made of iron and magnesium
   • Has two layers
     1. Upper mantle
        • Rocks are more elastic than those of sima.
        • Temperature is about 1000°c.
     2. lower mantle
        • Rocks are like very viscous liquid.
        • Temperature ranges between 1000°c to 3000°c.
4. Gutenberg Discontinuity
   A definite zone of discontinuity between mantle and core.
5. Core/barysphere/Centrosphere
   • The innermost/central layer of the earth.
   • Has 2 layers
     1. Outer Core
        • Composed of very dense rocks
        • Made up of nickel and iron
        • Temperatures are up to 3700°c.
     2. Inner Core
        • A solid mass of mainly iron
        • Temperatures are estimated to be 4500°c to 5000°c.
6. The Atmosphere
   Layer of gases surrounding the earth.
   The earth revolves with it because its held onto it by gravity
   It’s about 330km thick.
   Composition of the Atmosphere
   • Gases-exist as a mixture
   • Smoke particles
   • Dust particles
   • Water vapour
7. hydrosphere
   Ocean and seas

• Dealing with Emotions.
• Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Sports Performance
  • Athletes And Drug Abuse.
  • How to tell someone is abusing drugs
  • Effects of Drug Abuse in Athletes
  • Stereotypes And Drug Abuse.

Dealing with Emotions.

• They are also called feelings. they include joy, pain, sadness, love and anger.
• Sporting requires a state of wellness: which is a state of complete physical, mental, emotion and social well.
• The immediate effects of negative emotions like anxiety are:
  • Lightheadedness.
  • Muscle tension.
  • Elevated heart and breathing rates.
  • Increased blood flow to the brain and away from other organs
  • Nausea
  • Frequent urination and diarrhea
• Positive emotions, on the other hand, can have opposite effect. Laughter , for example, can:
  • Relieve tension throughout the body and within organs
  • Relieve the subsequent side effects of depression and anxiety.
  • Lower blood pressure.
• The longer- term physiological effects of emotions include;
  • Insomnia
  • Damage to kidneys
  • Digestive and gastro-intestinal problems
  • Chronic respiratory disorder
  • damage to cardiovascular system.

Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Sports Performance

• Drug abuse: is the use of drugs for a purpose it was not intended for.

Athletes And Drug Abuse.

• Athletes should be clean from abuse of alcohol and drugs
• Doping is illegal and athletes have been disqualified because of the same.
• Athletes should therefore abstain from abuse of drugs because it could lead to:
  • Addiction
  • Organ failure
  • Severe mood swings
  • Inability to perform properly in the sporting activity.
  • An increased risk of suffering from a heart attack or stroke.

How to tell someone is abusing drugs

1. Loss of interest in school
2. Changing friends.
3. Becoming moody, negative , cranky or worried all the time.
4. Ask to be left alone a lot.
5. Having trouble concentrating.
6. Sleeping a lot
7. Getting into fights.
8. Having red, puffy eyes.
9. Loss or gain of weight.
10. Coughing a lot.
11. Having a running nose all of the time.

Effects of Drug Abuse in Athletes

• It has many negative effects such as:
  
  
  1. Suspensions and Bans - Many professional athletic organizations have strict rules against using performance- enhancing and recreational drugs. Athletes who violate these rules may face serious consequences, such as suspensions or bans. In some cases, prior titles, medals or prizes may be revoked. professional athletes such as Lance Armstrong, Steve Howe and Brett Favre have suffered these consequences.
     
     
  2. Job loss and early retirement - Drug abuse can impair an athlete's ability to focus and otherwise negatively affect an athlete's performance. Certain drugs will give rise to a number of side effects and may be associated with performance -hindering withdrawal symptoms. Some athletes may be forces into early retirement because of the negative effects of their drug use.
     
     
  3. Health problems-  Taking anabolic steroids can result in liver and kidney damage, hypertension, and heart problems. Mental effects can include depression, anger and violence. Men may also experience impotence , infertility, and development of certain female sexual characteristics( e.g enlargement of breast tissue), while women may experience menstrual changes and development of masculine features.
      - Andro use can lead to side effects such as decreased sperm production, shrinking of the testicles , and increased breast side in men. In women, it can lead to the development of certain masculine qualities, such as deeper voice and male-pattern hair loss. For both men and women, taking the drug may increase the risk of heart attack and stroke.
      - Human growth hormone use is associated with joint pain, fluid retention, muscle weakness and vision problems. It can also lead to carpal tunnel syndrome, high cholesterol, hypertension, enlarged heart, and diabetes.
     - Excessive diuretic use can cause dehydration, muscle cramps, dizziness, rash, gout, potassium deficiency, poor balance and coordination, low blood pressure , and even death.
     -The risk of using erythropoietin include heart attack, stroke, and pulmonary embolism.
     - Alcohol use may impair problem-solving ability, memory, learning, and coordination and can lead to liver and neurological damage.
     - Marijuana can negatively affect short-term memory, learning, balance , coordination, and ability to focus.
     - short- term effects of amphetamine use include headaches, convulsions, hallucinations and paranoia. Long -term effects may include permanent nerve damage and death.
     - Cocaine can cause damage to the heart and respiratory, nervous, and digestive systems.
     
     
  4. Opioids such as heroin and prescription painkillers have a high risk of overdose. When these drugs are injected, the user's risk for contracting infectious diseases increases significantly.
     
     
  5. Addiction - The abuse of certain drugs, such as opioids and stimulants, can lead to addiction. Addiction is a brain disease that involves compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. Athletes who are addicted to drugs or alcohol may have a difficult time quitting without professional treatment.
     
     
  6. Death - Amphetamine use may lead to fatal hemorrhagic stroke or heart attack. Abusing opioids like heroin or prescription drugs also carries a high risk of lethall overdose. College basketball player Len Bias and professional hockey player Derek Boogaard both died of fatal drug overdose.

Stereotypes And Drug Abuse.

• A stereotype is an untrue belief of a particular type of person or thing. Some of the common stereotypes associated with drugs include;
  • An athlete will become a better performer.
  • A learner will become better in academics
  • They make a person become popular.

• Active and Passive Leisure Activities.
  • Disadvantages of Passive Activities.
• Leisure and Time management
• Care of Community Recreation Facilities.

Active and Passive Leisure Activities.

• Leisure activities are performed for fun.
• There are mainly two types of leisure.
  1. Passive leisure activities - are activities that someone is not participating in the activity.
  2. Active leisure activities - are those that someone is fully participant
• Leisure activities give us the opportunities to be ourselves and get creative.

Disadvantages of Passive Activities.

• They lead to development of lifestyle problems and diseases. 
• It reduces our creativity and lead to health problems due to long hours spent in sedentary positions

Leisure and Time management

• Time management - is the ability to organize activities one has perform in a given amount of time to leisure time is the free time.
• It is good to take time off from studies and from watching television to engage in a leisure activity individually or with friends.
• Leisure activities include:
  • Reading a story book.
  • Taking nature walks.
  • Volunteering at the local children's home.
  • Taking part in artistic activities such as painting.
  • Listening to music.
  • Attending as sporting activity as a spectator.

Care of Community Recreation Facilities.

• These are sometimes referred to as public facilities and are services offered by the state to its citizens.
• There are various ways of taking care of these facilities.
  • By avoiding littering these areas.
  • Planting trees in these areas.
  • Finding an alternative source of fuel.
  • Drawing graffiti (unauthorized writing or drawing on a public surface) on the walls of these areas should be discouraged to preserve their beauty.