• Major Language Groups in Africa
  • The People of North Africa
  • The People of Western Africa
  • The People of Central Africa
  • The People of Southern Africa
  • Other Language Groups in Southern Africa
• Interactions among African Communities
  • Modern Ways of Interaction
  • Benefits of Interaction among Communities
• Factors Influencing Population Distribution
  • Factors Influencing Population Distribution in Africa

Major Language Groups in Africa

A language group is a group of who speak same or similar language.
Communities in africa belong to different language groups
The people of africa are grouped geographically
They include;

1. The people of west africa
2. The people of north africa
3. The people of central africa
4. The people of southern africa

The People of North Africa

This region is made up of egypt, morocco, libya, algeria, western sahara, tunisia and mauritania.
People is this region include.
B – Berbers
A – arabs(semites)
T – tuaregs
Arabs mainly came to: trade, spread islam.
Berbers are found in tunisia, morocco, western sahara, libya, algeria.
Arabs are found in tunisia, libya, egypt, algeria, morocco and north sudan.
Tuaregs live in ahaggar plateau in algeria.

The People of Western Africa

This is the largest group in africa
They include;

1. Mande speakers
2. Kwa speakers
3. Voltaic speakers
4. West atlantic speakers
5. Nilo – saharan speakers
6. Afro-asiatic speakers

The Mande speakers

They are also called mandinkas or mandigoes
They are mainly cultivators
They live in;

1. Mali
2. Senegal
3. Ghana
4. Guinea bissau
5. Burkina faso
6. Sierra leone

They include;
S – Soninke
M – mande
S – susu
M – malinke
B – bambara

The Kwa speakers

They are the largest language group in west africa
They initially lived in north africa
Mostly live in ghana and nigeria
They include;
Ashanti, kwahu, akyem, akwapim, fanti, wassa, nzima, fula, denkyira and ga.
Igbo, yoruba, nupe edo, ijaw, igala and efik.

Voltaic speakers

They moved from lake chad.
They live between the upper and lower volta rivers
They were prominent traders
They are found mainly in ghana and burkina faso
They include;
Ewe – ewe
Mo – mossi
Gu – gurma
Da – dagomba
Be – bergu
Fo – fon
Eg – egun.

West Atlantic speakers

They live along the coast of atlantic ocean.
They are mainly pastorists
They are found in senegal, mali, gambia, guinea, mauritania, guinea bissau.
They include:
Fu – fulani
Tu – tukolor
Wo – wolof
Se – serer
Te – temme
C – creole
K – kru.

Afro-asiatic speakers

Are as a result of intermarriage betwee africans and arabs
Were mainly traders
Played an important role in the tras-saharan trade
They include
Ha – hausa
Tu – tuaregs
A – andarawa

The Nilo-Saharan speakers

They migrated from nile region to west africa through sahara.
They live in nigeria, niger, mali and cameroon,
They include;
So – songhai
Za – zarma
De – dendi
Ka – kanuri.

The People of Central Africa

Majority of the people are bantu
The earliest inhabitants of the region were the khoikhoi, san, and pygmies.
The pygmies are also called the bambuti
The pygmies lived in the forests
The san and khoikhoi were forced to move southwards
The bantu were mainly cultivators
Some of the bantu group of central africa are:

Pygmies

Also called bambuti
Are forest people
Are mainly hunters and gatherers
They lead a communal life i.e.sharing most of the food they get.
They are found in the forest lands of:

1. Central african republic
2. Congo republic
3. Gabon
4. D.R.C

The People of Southern Africa

1. Southern africa countries include;
   • South africa
   • Lesotho
   • Botswana
   • Swaziland
   • Namibia
   • Madagascar
2. Main language groups in southern africa are the khoisan, bantu, afrikaners
3. Majority of the people here are the bantu

The khoisan

They are the earliest and oldest inhibitants of southern africa
They migrated from congo forest
They speak with click sounds
They are made up of
Khoikhoiand the san

The khoikhoi

Also called hottentos
Are pastoralists
Are mainly found in namibia

The san

Also called the bushmen
Are hunters and gatherers
Are mainly found in kalahari desert in botswana and namibia

The bantu speaking people of southern africa

The Afrikaners

They are also known as the dutch
They migrated from the holland/netherlands
They came as settlers in 1652 in south africa
They were also called boers a dutch wod for farmers
They speak a language called afrikaans
They fought with british colonialists and were granted independence 1934

Other Language Groups in Southern Africa

They include asians and coloureds.

Asians

Are mainly indians
They were brought to work in sugar plantations of natal
They live in towns as businessmen

Coloureds

Are as a result of intermarriage between
Whites and blacks, white and asians, asians and blacks
Are mainly found in the urban centres of south africa

Interactions Among African Communities

Interactions refers to the coming together of different communities
Communities in the past interacted through the following ways:

1. During migrations
2. Through intermarriages
3. During wars and raids
4. Through games and sports
5. During famine and drought
6. Through trading(main)

Modern Ways of Interaction

1. Trade i.e local and international trade
2. Games and sports e.g. CECAFA,All african games, african cup of nations.
3. Regional organisations e.g.E.A.C, IGAD,AU
4. International workshops, seminars and conferences
5. Intermarriages
6. Reliious organisations e.g. catholic women association
7. Ceremonies and celebrations
8. Migrations e.g.emmigration
9. Women and youth groups e.g. federation for african women educators
10. Employment i.e places of work
11. Local and international tourism.

Benefits of Interaction among Communities

• It promotes trust among people
• It promotes economic development
• It promotes friendly relations
• It enables people to appreciate other’s culture
• It facilitates learning and exchange of new ideas and skills
• It promotes spiritual growth through religion
• Promotion of international peace and security
• It improves transport and communication
• Rich nations offers support to the poor countries

Factors Influencing Population Distribution

1. Population distribution is the way people are spread over an area
2. Population is not evenly distributed in africa
3. Some areas are densely populated whereas others are sparsely populated
4. Most people of africa live in rural areas
5. Urban centres have high population densities
6. Densely populated areas include;
   1. Major towns and cities
   2. Mining areas
   3. Highland areas
   4. River valleys
   5. Lake basins
   6. Coastal lowlands
7. Sparsely populated areas include:
   1. Deserts
   2. Forests
   3. Swamps
   4. Mountain tops
   5. Pest infested areas
   6. Steep slopy areas

Factors Influencing Population Distribution in Africa

Climate

Areas receiving high rainfall are densely populated
Areas receiving low rainfall and high temperatures are sparsely populated

Relief

Steep slopes of hills and mountaions are sparsely populated
Gentle slopes of highlands are densely populated
Cold and rocky peaks of mountaions are unihabited

Drainage

River valleys are densely populated due to irrigation
Poorly drained areas such as swamps are sparsely populated

Soils

Areas with fertile soils are densely populated
Areas with infertile sandy soils are sparsely populated

Vegetation

Areas with thick rainfall do not allow human settlement
People are not allowed to live in forest reserves

Pests and diseases

Areas infested with pests like tsetse flies discourages human settlement e.g. miombo woodland and lambwe
valley.

Urbanisation

Urban areas are densely populated because of development of trade industries, employment opportunities and good social amenities.

Mining activities

Presence and discovery of minerals attracts large number of people
This encourages setting up of business centres and related industries
Natural disasters/calamities/catastrophies e.g floods, eruption of volcanoes, landslides
Such areas are sparsely populated

Security

Areas with good political stability are densely populated
Areas experiencing instability due to civil wars are sparsely populated.

Social amenities

Areas with good social facilities like schools, hospitals, roads and recreational facilities are densely populated.

Government policy

Government ideas of settlement or irrigation schemes attracts large population
Gazettement of forest resrves makes some areas to have little or no population.

• Vegetation Zones in Africa
• Factors Influencing Distribution of Vegetation
• Characteritics of Vegetation in Different Zones
  • Tropical Rainforests
  • Savannah Vegetation
  • Mediterranean Vegetation
  • Desert and Semi-desert Vegetation
  • Temperate Grassland Vegetation
  • Mangrove Vegetation
  • Mountain Vegetation

Vegetation refers to the total plant life/cover on the earth sorface.
It consists of trees, bushes, thickets and grasses.
We have natural vegetation and planted vegetation.

Natural vegetation
This is a type of vegetation that grows on its own

Planted vegetation
Also called man-made or artificial vegetation
This is a type of vegetation cultivated by human beings.

Vegetation Zones in Africa

1. Tropical rainforest
2. Savannah vegetation
3. Mediterranean vegetation
4. Temperate grassland vegetation
5. Mountain vegetation
6. Desert and semi desert vegetation
7. Mangrove vegetation

Factors Influencing Distribution of Vegetation

1. Climate
2. Altitude an relief
3. Soils
4. Human activities
5. Government policy
6. Animal activities

Characteritics of Vegetation in Different Zones

Tropical Rainforests

It is also called equatorial vegetation
Is located latitude 5°N and 5°S of equator.
Are found in equatorial climatic zone.
Are found in:

• Eastern madagascar
• Gabo
• Congo
• Ghana
• Cote d ivoire
• Cameroon
• Nigeria
• Benin
• Togo

Characteristics

1. Tall evergreen trees
2. Tops of trees form layers called canopies
3. Trees have straight trunks
4. Trees have buttress roots
5. Trees have broad leaves
6. The forest has little or no undergrowth
7. Has climbing plants such as lianas
8. Consists of different tree species
9. Trees are mainly hardwood e.g.
   
   • Oak
   • Ebony
   • Obeche
   • Rosewood
   • Sapele
   • Camphor
   • Teak
   • Mahogany
   • Iroko
   • Ironwood
   • Mvule
   • Heartwood.

Savannah Vegetation

It covers the largest portion of africa
Is found between 5°N and 15°S of equator
Grows in tropical type of climate
It is made up of; savannah woodland and savannah grassland

Savannah Woodland

1. Main vegetation are trees
2. Trees are of medium height
3. Trees have umblerra shape at the top
4. Trees are widely spaced
5. Trees are decidious
6. Tall grass grow between the trees
7. Trees have thick barks and deep roots
8. Main trees are acacia and baobao

Savannah Grassland

1. Main vegetation is grass
2. Is made up of grass and trees
3. Trees are few and scattered
4. Grasses are tall and have stiff blades
5. Main trees are acacia and baobao
6. Trees have small leaves and thorns
7. Trees have dep roots and thick barks
   Examples of savannah woodland in africa
   • Miombo woodland in tanzania
   • Shimba hills forest of kenya
   • Zambia
   • Malawi
   • Angola

Mediterranean Vegetation

Also called marguis vegetation
Grows in the mediterranean climatic zone

Characteristics

1. Is made up of woodland(trees)and shrubs
2. Trees are short and thin
3. Main trees are oak, olive, fir, cedar, beech, pine, cypress, parasal.
4. Trees are short and cone shaped
5. Trees have small hard evergreen leaves
6. Trees have deep taproots and thick stems
7. Aromatic shrubs such as thyme, lavender, rosemary, aloe, sage.
8. Other plants have fleshy stems and shiny leaves.

Desert and Semi-desert Vegetation

Found in areas experincing arid and semi-arid climate
Found in sahara and namib desert, kalahari and sahel regions
Consists mainly of drought resisitance shrub

Characteristics

1. Mainly includes fleshy and thorny plants e.g.cactus and euphorbia
2. Plants are deep rooted
3. Plants have thin, spiky needle shaped leaves
4. Scattered thorny bushes and tough bunch of grass
5. Plants store water in fleshy stems and leaves
6. In some places the ground is bare

Temperate Grassland Vegetation

Grows in warm temperate climatic zone
Is also called the veld
Main vegetation is grass

Characteristics

1. Tuft/short grass and shrubs
2. Grass turns yellow-brown during the dry season
3. Has shrubs,bulbons plants and few trees.
4. Few trees are found along the river valleys.

Mangrove Vegetation

Is found along the muddy coasts of eastern and western africa.

Characteristics

1. Trees grows in salty water
2. Trees are hardwood and of medium height.
3. Trees are evergreed and they grow close together
4. Trees have aerial/breathing roots above the water surface.

Mountain Vegetation

Is found in the highlands and mountain regions
It grows in belts or zones according to the altitudes
It changes with increase in altitude
It is also known as afro-alpine vegetation
At average altitude above 400m there is no vegetation.
It grows on the slopes of :

1. Nyandarua ranges
2. Cameroon highlands
3. Ethiopia highlands
4. Atlas mountains
5. Mt.kilimanjaro
6. Mt.kenya

• Position, Shape and Size of Africa
  • Countries of Africa and their Location
• Major Longitudes and Latitudes
• Rotation of the Earth
  • Effects of Rotation of the Earth
• Revolution of the Earth
  • Effects of the Revolution of the Earth
• Map Reading and Interpretation
• Physical Features
  • Main Physical Features of Africa
  • Formation of Mountains
  • Formation of Lakes
  • Relief Regions of Africa
• Climate
  • Factors Affecting Climate
  • Climatic Regions in Africa
  • Influences of Climate on Human Activities

Position, Shape and Size of Africa

Position

Africa lies between latitude 37°N and 35°S and on longitute 18°W and 52°E.
Separated by water from all other continent except at the point where it joins Asia.
NOTE; When giving the position start with the latitude and then longitude.
Mostly Easterly point is called ras hafun(cape guardafui)
Mostly westerly is cape verde
Mostly northerly is cape bon
Mostly southerly is cape agulhas
Africa is connected to sinai peninsula by suez canal
Separated from spain by strait of gibraltar
Separated from rabia by strait of bab el-mandeb

Shape

The northern half is very wide while the southern is much narrower
At the cape guardafui extends outwards in the shape of a horn therefore the horn of africa.

Size

Africa is the second largest continent in the world
Has an area of about 30.3 million square kilometres(20% of the total land surface)
It measures 8000 km from north to south and 7400km from east to west
Other continents

1. Asia – 43608000km²
2. Africa – 30335000km²
3. North america – 25349000km²
4. South america – 17611000km²
5. Antarctica – 13340000km²
6. Europe – 10498000km²
7. Australia – 8923000km²

Countries of Africa and their Location

Africa has the largest number of countries in the world making a total of 55 countries
The newest country is South Sudan
African countries are given below in alphabetical order:

Algeria                                              2381741km²
Angola                                             1246700km²
Benin                                               115773km²
Botswana                                         600372km²
Burkina faso                                     274200km²
Burundi                                             28490km²
Cameroon                                        475900km²
Cape verde                                      7275km²
Central africa republic                      622984km²
Chad                                               1284000km²
Comoros                                          2117km²
congo                                               34965km²
cόte d’ ivoire                                     322463km²
djibouti                                              23310km²
DR congo                                         2345409km²
Egypt                                                1101449km²
Equatorial guinea                             28051km²
Eritrea                                              124320km²
Ethiopia                                            1221900km²
Gabon                                              267667km²
Gambia                                            11369km²
Ghana                                              238537km²
Guinea                                             245957km²
Guinea bisau                                    36125km²
Kenya                                               582648km²
Lesotho                                            30460km²
Liberia                                              111369km²
Libya                                                 1775000km²
Madagascar                                      592900km²
Malawi                                              118484km²
Mali                                                   1240192km²
Mauritania                                         1030700km²
Mauritius                                            2040km²
Morocco                                            724730km²
Mozambique                                     802000km²
Niger                                                 1267000km²
Namibia                                             824295km²
Nigeria                                               923773km²
Rwanda                                             26338km²
Sόo Tome & principe                         964km²
Senegal                                            196192km²
Seychelles                                         453km²
Sierra leone                                       72325km²
Somalia                                             626541km²
South africa                                       221037km²
South sudan                                     644329km²
Sudan                                              1886068km²
Swaziland                                          17368km²
Tanzania                                            947419km²
Togo                                                   56785km²
Tunisia                                               164154km²
Uganda                                              236036km²
Western sahara                                 252120km²
Zambia                                              752618km²
Zimbabwe                                         390759km²
The largest country in africa is Algeria while the smallest is Sychelle.
Offshore island also form part of africa;

1. Seychelle
2. Sao Tome and principe
3. Mauritius
4. Comoros
5. Madagascar
6. Cape verde

Activity

Draw and label map of africa(including all countries)

Major Latitudes and Longitudes

Major longitude is called prime meridian also called greenwich meridian
In africa it passes through:

1. Ghana(Accra)
2. Algeria
3. Burkina faso
4. Mali

All other longitudes are measured and named from prime meridian upto 180° on both sides

Major latitude in are three passing through africa

1. Equator 0°

   •  divides africa into two parts
   • It passes through;
     1. Gabon
     2. Congo
     3. DR congo
     4. Uganda
     5. Kenya
     6. Somalia

2. Tropic of cancer 23½° north of equator

   It passes through;
   
   1. Western sahara
   2. Mali
   3. Mauritania
   4. Algeria
   5. Libya
   6. Egypt

3. Tropic of capricorn 23½° south of equator

   It passes through:
   
   1. Namibia
   2. Botswana
   3. South africa
   4. Mozambique
   5. Madagascar

Other important lines of latitude are far from africa are:

1.  Arctic circle 66½° N
2. Antarctic circle 66½° S

Rotation of the Earth

This is movement of earth on its own axis. One complete rotation is 360°
The direction of the rotation is from west to east i.e.anticlockwise direction. One complete rotation takes 24 hours

Effects of Rotation of the Earth

1. Differences in time along different longitudes
2. Occurrence of day and night
   Effects on time note:
   24hrs=360
   1hr= ?
   (360 × 1) ÷ 24 =15
   Therefore 1hr=15 or 360 = (24×60)minutes=1440min
   1 = 1440 ÷ (360 ×1)= 4min
   
   Example 1
   The time in accra 0° is 7.00am.calculate time in bermbera 45°E
   1hr =15
   ? = 45 = (45×1) ÷ 15 =3hrs
   So 3hrs is equavalent to 45 then add 3hrs to 7.00am to get 10.00am

Revolution of the Earth

It is the movement of the earth around the sun on its own axis through a path known as orbit

Effects of the Revolution of the Earth

1. Causes different seasons
   1. Summer
   2. Winter
   3. Spring
   4. Autumn
      The four seasons follows
      Summer → Autumn → Winter → Spring (SAWS)
2. Differences in length of day and night
   • In December North pole experiences longer hours of darkness than days
   • In June south pole experiences longer hours of darkness than day
   • In March and September days and night are equal. This is because neither south pole or north pole is facing the sun or away from it.
3. Position of the midday sun
   • On 21^st June the sun is overhead at the tropic of cancer. This is called summer solstice
   • On December 22^nd the sun is overhead at the tropic of capricon. This is called winter solstice.
   • On March 21^st and September 23^rd the sun is overhead at the equator. This is called Equinox.

Map Reading and Interpretation

A map is a representation of the earth or part of it on a flat surface.
The symbols used in a map help to identify;

1. Economic activities
2. Population distribution
3. Relief
4. Drainage of an area

Economic activities

These are things that people engage in to obtain wealthe.g –mining,fishing, farming, livestock keeping,trading,

Relief

This is physical appreance of the earth’s surface. They include;

1. Hills
2. Valleys
3. Plateaus
4. Mountains
5. Plains

High ground or plateaus may be identified by the presence of;

1. Mountain
2. River source
3. Tea
4. Coffee
5. Pyrethrum

Low attitude or plains may be identified by presence of;

1. Swamps
2. Direction of flow of rivers
3. Cotton

On the atlas colour:

• Light green represent plains
• Yellow represents plateaus
• Brown represents highlands
• Purple represents mountain tops

Drainage

Includes all water features. They are;

1. Rivers
2. Lakes
3. Swamps
4. Ponds
5. Wells
6. Human made lakes

Colour is used to represent drainage

• Seasonal rivers – broken blue lines
• Permanent rivers – continuous blue lines

Swampy areas have few settlement because they are breeding ground for mosquitoes

Population distribution and settlement

Many dots in an area indicate there are many people living there. Such areas are said to be densely populated.

When dots are far apart or scattered the area is said to be sparsely populated.

Physical Features

Main Physical Features of Africa

The main physical features in africa are:

1. Plateaus
2. Basins
3. Valley
4. Swamps
5. Lakes
6. Rivers
7. Mountains and highlands

Activity
Our lives today pg 17
Draw map of africa showing main physical features

Plateaus

It is a high area which is generally level or flat ot the top

They are made up of very old and hard rocks

Basins

These are broad and shallow depressions. Most prominent ones are:

1. Congo
2. El Djouf
3. Sudan
4. Chad
5. Kalahari
6. Danakil depression

Other smaller basins – qattara in egypt,Lake victoria – kyoga basin

The lowest depression in africa is danakil depression

Valleys

It is a long depression on the earth surface
The world’s biggest and most famous is the great rift valley. It covers a distance of 5600km.

Great rift valley is divided into four sections

1. Ethiopia rift valley
2. Eastern branch
3. Western branch
4. Malawi rift valley

Ethiopian rift valley

• It begins from the red sea and extends down to lake turkana

Eastern branch

• Begins from lake turkana through kenya down to tanzania

Western branch

• Starts from lake rukwa in tanzania and runs along the borders of uganda and DRC to south sudan border.lake tanganyika, kivu,goerge,albert and edward are found in this branch.

Malawi rift valley

• It is a continuation of the eastern branch. Starts from lake malawi and ends at port of beira in mozambique
  River shire valley, luangwa of zambia and the urema trough of mozambique are found here

Mountains and Highlands

The main highlands in africa include:

1. Ethiopian highlands 
2. Guinea highlands
3. Adamawa highlands in cameroon.

Lakes

Natural lakes

Lake victoria, tanganyika, malawi, chad, bangweulu.

• Victoria is the second largest lake in the world
• Tanganyika is the deepest (second)lake in the world

Human made lakes

Volta – ghana, kainji – nigeria, nasser – egypt, kariba on border of zambia and zimbabwe.

Some lakes are salty e.g. magadi, natron, shala, bogoria, nakuru.

Salty lakes have no river flowing out of them.

Rivers

Major rivers include the:nile, congo, niger, zambezi, benue, orange, limpopo, volta, senegal,

River Nile is the longest in africa

Rivers that form delta are; Niger, and Nile

Niger delta is the largest in africa

Other rivers drain into the sea or lake in a single channel called estuary.
Examples: are zambezi, congo and senegal.

Swamps

They are areas of soft,wet land covered with vegetation.

They are named according to the types of vegetation in them e.g.papyrus swamps have papyrus reeds

Mangrove swamps have mangrove trees.

Examples of swamps are;

• Okavango and makarikari in botswana
• Sudd along the nile in south sudan
• Lorian in kenya
• Lake – kyoga in uganda
• Malagasi in tanzania
• Swamp around lake chad

Formation of Mountains

There are four types of mountains

1. Block mountain
2. Volcanic mountain
3. Fold mountains
4. Residual mountains

Fold mountains

Formed after sedimentary rock fold at the edges

Examples of fold mountains includes:

• atlas in north africa
• Cape ranges in south africa
• Drankenberg in south africa

Residual mountains

Formed when rock masses are reduced in size after many years of erosion

Examples are namuli – mozambique, homboli – mali

Other smaller features which may be formed in smaller manner are inselbergs

Formation of Lakes

A lake is hollow or depression on the surface of the earth which is filled with water. Lakes are formed in different ways

1. Erosion
2. Earth movements
3. Deposition
4. Volcanic actions
5. Human activities

Erosion

May be either through action of wind or glaciers

Wind actions
Examples are maghra, birket(lake siwa)both in egypt

Glacier actions
A glacier is a big block of moving ice

It is found on top of high mountains

Glacial lakes are known as tarns or corrie lake. Examples are teleki, hanging, gallary

Materials eroded by ice(moraine)may be deposited to form a barrier in a valley.

Behind such a barrier water may be collected to form a moraine dammbed lake.

Earth movements

They are of two types.these are;faulting and downwarping

1. Faulting
   Examples are:
   • Lake tanganyika – tanzania
   • Eyasi – tanzania
   • Malawi – malawi
   • Edwajrd and george – uganda
   • Turkana, baringo and magadi – kenya
2. Downwarping
   Examples of downwarping lakes are:
   • Victoria
   • Kyoga
   • Bangweulu
   • Chad

Deposition

The lakes formed in this manner are ox-bow lakes
Examples are:

• Utange – on river rufiji in tanzania
• Kanyaboli – on river yala in kenya
• Gambi – on river tana in kenya.

Such lakes can also form in a delta areas e.g. lake manzala on nile delta.

Activity
draw diagrams on our lives today pg 24.

Volcanic activity

1. Crater lakes
   Examples of crater lakes are:
   • Lake shala – ethiopia
   • Lake nyos – cameroon
   • Lake paradise – kenya
2. Lava – dammed lakes
   Formed when water accumulates behind the lava barrier to form a lake
   Examples:
   
   • Lake kivu – uganda
   • Lake tana – etiopia
   • Lake itasy – madagascar
   • Lake bunyoyi – uganda

Human activities

Lakes formed as a result of human activities are called artificial lakes
Examples:

• Lake nasser
• Lake kariba
• Lake volta

Relief Regions of Africa

Relief regions in africa are

1. Plateaus
2. Rift valley
3. Highlands and mountains
4. Coastal and lowlands

Plateaus

Is high and generally level ground
They lie between 400 – 2600 m above sea level
They have residuals hills (inselbergs)and valleys\
They are separated by short steep slopes known as scarps or escarpments.

The rift valley

The great rift valley enters africa from the red sea to beira in mozambique.
The narrowest part is about 30km wide while the widest is about 100km.
There are depressions occupied by lakes; e.g. bogoria and malawi etc
There are hills and mountains e.g. mt.longonot, suswa and ruwenzori
Some rivers flow along the floor of the rift valley .e.g. kerio, ewaso nyiro, and semliki

Highlands and mountains

Areas lying above 2000m can be described as highlands
Areas lying aove 2600m form mountains
The main highlands and mountains in africa

1. Atlas mountains – morocco
2. Ethiopia highlands – ethiopia
3. East african highlands
4. Ahaggar and tibesti mountains – chad
5. Adamawa highlands – cameroon.
6. Drankens berg and cape ranges – south africa
7. Guinea highland – guinea

Mt.kilimanjaro is the highest in africa 5895m
Mt kenya – 5199m
Mt ruwenzori – 5109m

Coastal plains and lowlands

These are low – lying areas that border coast
They lie 0 – 400m above sea level.
They are narrow
Many parts are covered by sandy beaches

Climate

Climate is the average weather conditions of a particular place over a long period of time normally 30-35years

Factors Affecting Climate

1. Relief and altitude
2. Wind
3. Latitudes
4. Ocean currents
5. Shape of the coastline
6. Distance from the sea

Relief and Altitude

It influences the temperatures, the higher you go the cooler it becomes. The rate for every 100m of vertical height is 0.6
It also affects rainfall

Winds

Onshore wind absorbs water vapour from the sea and therefore bring rain to the land.
Offshore wind are dry winds and bring no rainfall.
The wind which influenceclimate in africa are;

1. Westerly winds – bring rainfall to mediterranean
2. North-east trade winds – they are offshore wind since they originate from asia.
3. South-easttrade winds – they bring alot of rainfall to eastern africa
4. South-westerly winds – they bring alot of rain to west africa and congo basin.
5. Hamarttan winds – they are hot and dry. They cause dry conditions to the north and west africa.

Activity
Draw map of africa showing the winds.our lives today bk 7 pg 29

Latitude

This is the distance from equator.
Places near the equator experiences high temperatures while those far awy expriences lower temperatures
Africa lies within the tropics that is 23½° N and 23½° S. This region does not experience big change in
temperature during the different seasons.
Places outside the tropics experience winter and summer seasons. This is because the farther away one moves
from the tropics the cooler it gets.

Ocean Currents

These are the horizontal movements of water in the ocean.
They can be either be cold or warm.
Cold moves toward the equator while warm away from the equator.
The cold ocean currents are;

1. Canary current
2. Benguela current
   Cold current cause fog and mist to land

Warm currents are;

1. Somali current
2. Mozambique current
3. Guinea current
   Warm currents causes rainfall to the land

Distance from the sea

Places that are far away from the sea receive low rainfall than those that are near.
This rainfall is called convectional rainfall
The sea also helps in the formation of cool sea breezes and land breezes

Shape of the coast line

When winds blow parallel to the coastline, they bring no rainfall to the land e.g. coast of ghana
Example axim town receives more rainfall than accra.

Climatic Regions of Africa

Africa has the following climatic regions

1. Equatorial
2. Tropical/savannah
3. Mediterranean
4. Mountain
5. Desert and semi desert
6. Humid sbtropical
7. Warm continental

Characteristics of climatic regions of africa

Equatorial Climate

Also called hot and wet climate It is experienced in;

• Nigeria
• Liberia
• Cote d ivoire
• Sierra leone
• Gabon
• Cameroon
• Congo
• Democratic repblic of congo

Characteristics

• Receives heavy rainfall – highest rainfall between April to June and lowest rainfall between september to october
• Have double maxima rainfall
• Most of the rainfall is convectional
• Rainfall is accompanied by thunder and lightning
• Temperatures are high throughout the year
• No dry season
• Dinurnal temperature range is small
• High humidity

Savannah Climate

Also called tropical climate. 
Mainly found within the tropics

Characteristics

• Experiences hot rainy season and acool dry season
• Temperature range is between 15 C to 25 C.
• When the rainy season is being experienced in the north of the equator, the dry season inthe south of africa and vice versa
• Rainfall ranges from 380mm to 2000mm p.a.

Mediterranean Climate

It is experienced to the north africa along coast of;morocco, algeria, tunisia and around benghazi in libya.
Also experienced in south africa around cape town.

Characteristics

• Experience hot, dry summer and cool, wet winter
• During the winter season, winds are on shore hence rain , while during summer winds are offshore hence no rain.
• Annual rainfall varies from 500 – 750mm
• Most rainfall is brought by westerly winds
• Temperatures range between 13 C and 24 C.

Semi – desert Climate

Experienced in kalahari and the sahal regions
This region have low rainfall and high temperatures

Characteristics

• Rainfall between 380-500mm p.a.
• Temperature between 22 C to 27 C
• The skies are generally clear

Desert or Arid Climate

True desert are experienced in sahara in north africca and in the namib in namibia

Characteristics

• Lands are dry
• Highest temperatures 58°C and lowest 4°C
• The skies are normally cloudless
• Diurnal
• Temperature range is very big.
• Rainfall is less than 250mm p.a. it fall within short period accompanied by storms.

Humid Subtropical Climate

Experienced in the coastal areas of eastern cape province and natal in south africa and also in mozambique.
Is influenced by warm mozambique currents and south east trade wind.

Characteristics

• Rainfall between 900 to 11500mm
• Most rainfall falls in summer.
• Both convectional and relief rainfall are recieved.
• Temperature range betwwen 13°C to 26°C.

Warm Continental Climate

Also known as the high veld climate
Experienced between the mediterranean climate zone of cape region in south africa and the humid subtropical
zone.

Characteristics

• Rainfall received all year
• Annual rainfall between 780mm in the east and 400mm in the west
• Winds from the indian ocean influence the rainfall.
• Temperature from 10°C to 19°C.

Mountain Climate

Also known as alpine climate
It is influenced by altitude

Characteristics

• Temperature decreases with increase in altitude
• High rainfall is received in mountain areas due to rising of moist air.
• Seasons exprienced in africa

Activity draw the diagrams on our lives today bk 7 pg 37

Places outside the equatorial regions but within the tropics, we have tropical region.these regions experience dry seasons and rainy seasons during other parts of the year.

Places farther away from equatorial and tropical regions experiences the four seasons

Mediterranean lands experiences hot and dry summer and cool, wet winter

Arid and semi-arid regions experiences hot and dry seasons throughout the year.

Influences of Climate on Human Activities

1. Savannah are used for grazing
2. Wild animals in savannah encourage tourism
3. In the hunid subtropical region of south africa sheep are reared for meat and wool.
4. Sawmilling is common in equaltorial regions
5. Nomadic pastralism is practised in desert and semi desert regions
6. Farming is practised in equatorial, modified equatorial, tropical and subtropical climatic zone.
7. Tourism is practised at the top of mt.kenya, kilimanjaro and ruwenzori mountain because of snow.
8. Climate influences types of houses to be built e.g.in wet areas the roof is steep for water to drain while flat tops are built in hot areas e.g. manyatta among the maasai.
9. Areas that encourages breeding of mosquitoes and tsetse discourage settlement e.g.miombo woodland in tanzania and lambwe valley in kenya

• Insha ya Masimulizi
  • Huzuni au Tanzia
  • Insha ya Mikasa
  • Hisia za Furaha
  • Ndoto/Njozi/Ruya/RuiyaBarua/Waraka
• Barua/Waraka
  • Barua ya Kirafiki/Kidugu
  • Barua Rasmi
• Insha ya Methali
  • Methali za Majuto
  • Methali za Kutohadaika na Uzuri wa Nje wa Kitu na Tamaa
• Insha ya Maelezo
  • Haki na Ajira za Watoto
  • Michezo
  • Dawa za Kulevya
  • Umuhimu wa Maji
• Hotuba
  • Umuhimu wa Elimu
• Mjadala
  • Teknolojia
• Insha ya Mazungumzo
• Insha za Hadithi

Insha ya Masimulizi

Insha hii huwa na hisi mbili: furaha na huzuni

Vinaweza visa vya kubuni au halisi

Mtahiniwa aweza kutahiniwa mara tatu

Mwanzo wa handithi – dokezo
Huhitajika aendeleze
Kimalizio/tamati

Mtahiniwa lazima aane insha na atamatishe kwa kutumia kimalizio hicho

Huzuni au Tanzia

Visawe vya huzuni ni masikitiko, majonzi, jitimai, buka, chonda na msiba

Hivi ni visa vinanyoleta majonzi, huzuni, simanzi, sikitiko au jitimai

• Mikondo
• Ujambazi/unyang’anyi/uporaji/wizi
• Utekajinyara
• Ujangili
• Wizi wa mifugo
• Ulaghai
• Magendo
• Ugomvi wa kijamii
• Uvamizi na watu katili
• Migomo

Misamiati na mapambo

• Mayowe – ukemi, usiahi, mayowe
• Wasiwasi- jekejeke, jakamoyo, kiherehere
• Kufa – kata kamba, enda ahera, jongomeo
• Hasira – pandwa na mori, kuwa na tumbo joto, kama zaibaki kwenye kipimajoto
• Nilinyapianyapia/nilinyatianyatia nyatunyatu
• Joho la kiwewe lilinivaa
• Nilichana mbuga/nilitifua vumbi ili kuyaokoa maish -
• Moyo ulinidwikadwika/ulinipapa kama ngoma za mahepe
• Malaika yalinisimama wima
• Tulisikia sauti zilizotweta kama
• Sikuyaamini macho nilipoona
• Nilipiga usiahi ambao ungewafufua wafu
• Ulimi uliniganda kinywani
• Nililia kwa kite na imani lakini kilio si dawa
• Nilitoka shoti kama
• Ngeu ilimtiririka kama
• Milio ya risasi ilitamalaki kwenye anga
• Parafujo za miguu ziliregea
• Macho yalinitoka pima kama
• Nilitetemeka kama unyasi nyikanu
• Kijasho chembamba kikaanza kunitoka

Methali

• Mbwa hafi maji akiona ukoko
• Damu ni nzito kuliko maji
• Tama mbele mauti nyuma
• Unjanja wa nyani huishia jagwani
• Siku za mwizi ni arubaini
• Pwagu hupata pwaguzi

Ragba

• Juhudi ziligonga mwaba
• Maisha yalianza kuingia ufa
• Jaribu kwa udi na uvumba
• Sijui alipandwa na pepo gani
• Mambo yalimwendea tege/upogo upogo
• Alitoka na michirizi ya damu
• Alipigwa kitutu/kipopo

Dekeza

• Alifunzwa na ulimwengu usiokuwa na huruma
• Huruma zake ziligeuka kama umande
• Alilia kilio cha kite na shake bila kufahamu kilio si dawa
• Alivamiwa vaa bin vu

Takriri

• Haambiliki hasemezeki
• Hana hanani
• Hazindishi hapunguzi
• Hapiki hapakui
• Jando wala togo

Insha ya Mikasa

Mikasa ni matukio yaletayo maafa, masaibu na matatizo kwa watu
Visawe

• Msiba
• Balaa
• Zani
• Baa
• Maafa
• Janga
• Belua

Mifano ya mikasa

• Moto
• Wizi
• Ajali barabarani
• Ugaidi
• Ubakaji
• Utekaji nyara
• Zilizala
• Kuza maji
• Maporomoko ya ardhi
• Mlipuko wa bomu
• Ukame
• Kabobo

Jinsi yakujadili

• Eleza mahali pa mkasa
• Jinsi tukio lilivyotukia
• Wakati
• Msaada uliotoa
• Maafa/hasara
• Utafiti
• Changamoto
• Mkasa wa moto

Mada

• KIFO KICHUNGU
• JEHANAMU DUNIANI
• NDIMI ZA JEHANAMU
• MOTO WA KUTISHA
• NDIMI ZA MANAYA/MAUTI
• NARI YA KUTISHA

Msamiati

• Ndimi za moto
• Jiko lililolipuka laweza kuwa gesi, umeme , mbomba la mafuta.tangi la mafuta
• Mavundo ya moshi yalifuka
• Mashungi ya moto
• Cheche za moto
• Moto ulitatarika an kurindima
• Upepo ulivuma kwa ghamidha na ghadhabu
• Matagaa na mapogoo mabichi
• Kujitoma ndani ya nyumba kama mwehu
• Nahodha hodari haogopi mawimbi
• Moto ulifakamia majengo kama nzige wavamiavyo shamaba la mihogo
• Wengine walichomeka kiwango cha kutotambulikavilio vilinywewa na kuwapwetea
• Nilifadhaika kwa fadhaa na wahaka
• Kichwa kilinizunguka kama tiara
• Vilio vya ving’ora vya makarandinga na ambulensi vilitanda na kuhinikiza hewa
• Uma uliuputa moto na kuwaokoa manusura
• Tulitoa huduma za kwanza
• Wengi walisali/kufanya dua zisizoeleweka

Msamiati mwingine

• Nilibaki kinywa wazi
• Machozi ya majonzi yalinilengalenga
• Machozi yalinienda njia mbilimbili
• Lia kwikwikwi
• Nilifikiri macho yangu yalikuwa yakinchezea shere
• Choka hoi bin tiki
• Fafanua kinaga ubaga
• Pigwa na butwaa
• Nilibung’aa na kuduwaa waa
• Ponea chupuchupu

Ragba

• Alipovunja ungo alianza kuwa na mienendo benibeni
• Mambo yalimwendea upogo/tenge/msobemsobe
• Alitokwa ma michirizi ya damu ______________ baada ya kupigwa kipopo/kitutu
• Kijasho chembamba kilianza kumtoka
• Aliondoka kichwa kifuani kama kondoo /shikwa na zabaiki ya uso, tayarini/haya/soni
• Uzuri wake ulimteka bakunja akawa haoni hasikii
• Akasahau penye urembo ndipo penye ulimbo
• Aliyatemea mawaidha/nasaha mate
• Alikuwa hayawani kwenye ngozi ya binadamu
• Ama kweli _____________
• Dekeza/engaenga kama yai
• Alifunzwa na ulimwengu usiokuwa na huruma
• Huruma zake ziligeuka kama umande
• Alilia kilio cha kite na shaka bila kufahamu kuwa kilio si dawa
• Alikuwa ndumakuwili kikulacho ki nguono mwako
• Husuda/wivu zilimzidi hadi akakosa utulivu
• Alivamiwa ghafla bin vuu

Methali

• Maji hufuata mkondo
• Bendera ikipepea sana huraruka
• Mpiga ngumi ukuta huumia mwenyewe
• Mpiga mbizi kwenye nchi kavuhuchunue usoni
• Pwagu hupata pwaguzi
• Mchimba kisima huingia mwenyewe
• Vyote ving’aavyo si dhahabu
• Vyote viowevu si maji
• Njia ya mhini na mhiniwa ni moja

Takriri

• Haambiliki hasemezeki
• Hana hanani
• Hazidishi hapunguzi
• Hapiki hapakui
• Jando wala togo
• Vihusishi
• Lahaula!
• Yarabi!
• masalaale!
• Lo!
• Lakwata!
• Usaindizi
• Walitupiga njeki
• Niliwatupia upondo
• Niliwapa mkono
• Tulisaidiana kama kiko na dagali, maiti na jeneza

Tamati

• Hakika, hakuna msiba usiokuwa na mwenziwe
• Daima dawamu sitalisahau tukio hilo
• Matukio hayo hayatafutika kutoka tafakirini mwangu
• Ninapokumbuka kisa hicho, machozi hunitiririka njia mbilimbili

Hisia za Furaha

Furaha hutokana na

• Sherehe – harusi
• Mwakampya
• Kuzaliwa kwa motto
• Sikukuu ya krismasi
• Sikukuu ya pasaka
• Mahafali – sherehe za kufuzu
• Siku ya tuzo/harambee
• Kutembelewa na wageni
• Sherehe za kitaifa
• Sherehe za asili

Msamiati na mapambo

• Maua ya kila ainati – si asmini, mawaridi
• Ukumbi ulijaa na kuwatapika adinasi
• Vipaza sauti vilihinikiza sauti
• Vyakula vya kila aina/jamii vilitishia kuangusha meza
• Msichana /kidosho/kipusa alitembea kwa madaha
• Mkalimani na mfawidhi walishirikiana kama
• Tulilakiwa kwa kupigwa pambaja
• Waja walijaa si si si si
• Waja waliwasili makundimakundi/mmoja mmoja/pacha pacha
• Nikitembea aste aste hadi jukwaani
• Kula/kushtaki njaa/fanyia mlo haki
• Nilikumbuka nilivyojifunga kibwebwe/masombo
• Kaka angeasi ukapera
• Waja walisakata ruma/dansi
• Msafara/mlolongo wa magari
• Mrembo/spoti/sawa na hurulaini kutoka peponi
• Wapambe walivalia sare za kupendeza
• Kusakata rumba/dansi/kunengua viungo
• Msafara/mlolongo wa magari
• Mtibwiriko wa kukata na shoka
• Sheheneza pongezi sufufu
• Mkono wa tahania
• Pofushwa na vimulimuli vya wapiga picha
• Walijaa sisisi/pomoni
• Hojiwa na sailiwa na wanahabari

Vipokezi vya methali

• Yakini, ___________
• Waama, _____________
• Ama kweli ________________
• Wahenga hawakukosea walipokili _______________

Methali

• Chanda chema huvishwa pete
• Baada ya dhiki faraja
• Hauchi hauchi unakucha
• Siku njema huonekana asubuhi
• Mvumilivu hula mbivu
• Safari ys kesho hupangwa leo
• Msafiri ni aliye bandarini

Insha za Ndoto/Njozi/Ruya/Ruiya

Ni maono anayoyapata mtu akiwa usingiziniBarua/Waraka

Huketa hisia za furaha au huzuni

Mtu anaweza kupiga mayowe au kuweweseka kulinga na ndoto

Ndoto za huzuni zinaweza kuhusu

• Kifo
• Wizi
• Moto
• Mafuriko
• Kutishwa na viumbe hatari

Wakati mwingine mhusika hutokwa na jasho, kutabawali au kujikuta mvunguni mwa kitanda

Ndoto ya furaha humfanya mhusika kujilaumu kuwa ilikuwa ni ndoto tu. Inaweza kuhusu

• Mahafali
• Kuwa tajiri
• Kapasi mtihani
• Kuzaliwa mahali kama ikulu

Mwandishi asianze kwa kusema kuwa alianza kuota

Mapambo

• Baada ya kula chajio _____________
• Nilikuwa nimechoka hoi bin tiki _______________
• Niliubwaga mgogole wangu kwenye kitanda ____________
• Nilijifunika gubigubi na kulala fo fo fo
  Hisia za furaha
• Nilifurahi ghaya ya kufurahi
• Furaha upeo wa furaha
• Nilidamka wanguwangu na kushika hamsini zangu
• Niliamka alfajiri ya Mungu/ya musa
• Ukumbi ulijaa shangwe, nderemo na hoi hoi
• Nilipaa na kuelea angani
• Vicheko vilishika hatamu jari moja
  Hisia za huzunu – jinamizi
• Maji yalikuwa yamenifika shingoni
• Ulimi uliniganda kinywani
• Moyo ulinipapa kama kwamba ulitaka ufunguliwe utoke
• Nilishindwa kuongea ni kawa kama mja aluyepokonywa ulimi
• Malaika alinisimamia tisti/wima/kititi
• Mambo yaliniendea mpera mpera
• Nilipiga usiahi/mayowe ambayo yangewafufua wafu
• Zogo na zahama lilizuga
• Nililia kwa kite na imani lakini hakuna aliyenihurumia
• Niliduwaa na kubung’aa kama mzungu wa reli
• Kilio cha kikweukweu kilihitimu kikawa cha mayowe

Barua/Waraka

Kuna aina mbili

1. Barua ya kirafiki
2. Barua rasmi

Barua ya Kirafiki/Kidugu

Huandikwa ili kupeana mwaliko, kujuliana hali, kufahamisha au kuarifu kuhusu jambo

BIDII FAULU,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA.
18-11-2015

Kwa sahibu yangu, fundi msanifu ,
Utangulizi _______________
Mwili

Hatima
Ni mimi wako,
Jina lamwandishi

Sehemu muhimu za barua hii ni anwani ya mwandishi

• Huandikwa pembeni kabisa wa kulia sehemu ya juu
• Hujumuisha jina la mwandishi au anakosomea au kufanya kazi
• Huwa pia na mahali anakoishi na sanduku la posta

Kianzio

• Hudhihirisha anayeandikiwa
• Hubainisha uhusiano wake na mwandishi
• Kwa mpendwa
• Kwa laazizi
• Rafiki yangu
• Kwa mwanangu mpendwa

Utangulizi

Haya ni maamkizi na kujuliana hali
Mfano

• Pokea salamu sufufu/furifuri
• Mimi ni buheri w afya/mzima kama

Mwili

• Hubeba ujumbe au kusudio la barua
• Lengo/nia/azma ya kukuandikia barua hii ni __________
• Jina la
• Ninaomba unitendee hisani/fadhila
• Kwa kuwa wema hauozi
• Ninakuhakikishia kuwa nitatia bidii
• Ningependa kukujuvya kuwa
• Tumia viunganishi ili kuunganisha mawazo
  • Isitoshe, zaidi ya hayo, aidha

Tamati

• Ningependa kutia nanga kwa kukueleza
• Ningependa kukunja jamvi
• Kwa kuwa muda umenip kisogo
• Ni mimi wako mpenzi,
• Ni wako mpendwa,
• Jina la mwandishi

Barua Rasmi

• Huandikwa ili kuwasilisha ujumbe maalum
• Huandikwa ili kuomba msamaha
• Kuomba nafasi kwa kazi
• Kuwasilisha malalamishi
• Kuagizia/kuthibitisha mapokezi ya kampuni, shirika , idara

Sehemu

Anwani ya mwandishi

• Huandikwa pembeni kabisa upande wa kulia sehemu ya juu ya karatasi
• Hujumuisha jina la mwandishi, sanduku la posta, mahali anakoishi na tarehe baada ya anwani vuka mstari mmoja

Anwani ya mwandikiwa

• Hutaja cheo cha anayeandikiwa
• Taja jina la kampuni/shirika/dara
• Taja S.L.P

Kianzio

• Huanzia chini ya anwani ya mwandikiwa
  
  • Bwana/BW
  • Bibi/BI
  • Mabibi
  • Mabwana

Mtajo

• Huelezea lengo la barua
• Hutangulizwa kwa MINT: (mintirafu), KUH: (kuhusu), OMBI: , kumb: (kumbuka)
• Pigia mstari ujumbe wenyewe

Mwili

Hubeba ujumbe wa barua

Maudhui hutegemea nia au lengo la barua

Lugha iwe rasmi

Msamiati

• Nina furaha riboribo/kuu/firifuri
• Nina bashasha belele
• Ninasikitika ninapokuandika waraka huu ____________________
• Ningependa kuchukua fursa/wasaa/nafasi
• Kurejelea habari Fulani
• Kwa mujibu w habari niliyoisoma/kutokana na taarifa/ kulingana na ______________
• Shule.kampuni/shirika _____________ imesifika
• Imetajwa na kutajika
• Sifa zake zimeenea kote _______________ kamamoto nyikani kama wakati wa hari/kiangazi
• Katika Nyanja za michezo ____________________ idara/shirika/shule yako
• Wasifu/tawasifu _____________ mimi ni mwananchi kindakindaki/halisi
• Nina nidhamu na taadhima ya hali ya ___________________
• Nina talanta katika fani ya riadha uimbaji
• Nina sauti ya ninga
• Nitakuwa kielelzo dhabiti kwa
• Nitatia bidii za mchwa ajengaye kichunguu
• Nitavumilia/nitajikaza kisabuni ili kuafikia ndoto yangu
• Vyeti vyangu vimeambatanishwa pamoja na waraka huu

Tamati

Ni mwisho wa barua
Huandikwa pembeni upande wa kulia sehemu ya chini
Herufi ya kwanza iwe kubwa

Insha ya Methali

Methali ni usemi wa kisanii wa kimapokeo unaofikiliwa na jamii na hutumiwa kufumbia jambo fulani

Methali hutahiniwa kwa namna tatu

Ikiwa kama mada

Mwanafunzi anafaa aeleze maana ya juu na ya ndani yake na matumizi yake iwapo anaifahamu vyema

Methali za Majuto, Maonyo na Tahadhari

• Hutumiwa kuonyesha athari au madhara yanayotokea baada ya mtu kugaidi maagizo, nasaha au maonyo

• Methali hutahiniwa kwa njia tatu
  Ikiwa mada
  Mwanzo – mwanafunzi huhitajika kuendeleza bila kufafanua maana ya methali
  Kimalizio – lazima kisa kishahibiane na methali ile.

  Tanbihi
  Ikiwa methali itakuwa mada, mtahiniwa atahitajika kueleza maana ya nje, ya ndani na matumizi endapo anafahamu

• Hutumiwa kutoa funzo kwa wenginekutokana na dhiki na majuto yaliyomfika mhusika
  • Asiyefunzwa na mamaya hufunzwa na ulimwengu
  • Asiyeskia la mkuu huvunjika guu
  • Mchelea mwana kulia hulia mwenyewe
  • Mbio za sakafuni huishia ukingoni
  • Mchuma janga hula na wa kwao
  • Ujanja wa nyani huishia jangwani
  • Majuto ni mjukuu huja kinyume
  • Mchimba kisima huingia mwenyewe
  • Msiba wa kujitakia hauna kilio
  • Kilio si dawa
  • Asiyeangalia huishi laiti ningalijua
  • Mkata pema pabaya panamwita
  • Sikio la kufa halisikii dawa
  • Haraka haraka haina baraka
• Vipokezi vya methali
  Yawe yasiwe ____________
  Aisee! __________
  Labeka! _________________
  Lahaula! Lakwata ____________
  Chambilecho wenye ndimi walihenga ______________
  Hapo ndipo nilipoamini na kusadiki kuwa ______________
  Waledi wa lugha waligonga ndipo walipoganga kuwa _______________
  Wakale hawakupanda upepo wakavuna tufani _____________
• Visa husika
  • Wizi
  • Utumizi wa dawa za kulevya
  • Kujiingiza katika anasa

Mapambo na msamiati

• Kutofuata ushauri
  • Alikuwa hakanywi hakanyiki
  • Hasikii la mwadhini wala la mteka maji msikitini
  • Alikuwa haliki hatafunuki
  • Haambiliki hasenezeki
  • Alikuwa hajijui hajitambui
• Kujuta
  
  • Aliishia na laiti kinywani
  • Alijiuma kidole/alilia chanda kili kinywani
  • Nilikabiliana ana kwa ana na ulimwengu usiokuwa na huruma
  • Niliyaona ya firauni
  • Nilikiona kilichomtoa kanga manyoya
• Kupuuza
  • Alivalia miwani mashauri
  • Niliyatemea mate mawaidha
  • Alijitia hamnazo
  • Aliyatia kapuni yota aliyoambiwa
• Mambo kuharibika
  • Mambo yalimwendea pete/tenge/mrisi/shoto/shambiro
  • Kutowezekana kwa
  • Ilikuwa sawa na kukama tetere
  • Kufunuka jua kwa ungo au chekeche
  • Kuchota maji kwa pakacha
• Tashbihi
  • Pukutikwa na machozi kama ngamia
  • Tiririkwa na machozi kama maji mlimani
  • Mchafu kama kilihafu/fungo
  • Nuka kama mzoga/beberu/kindonda
• Unafiki na kujitakia shida
  • Chui aliyevalia ngozi ya kondoo
  • Panya aliyeumia na kuvuvia
  • Kujipali makaa kama chachandu
  • Kuogelea katika bahari ya moto
  • Methali ni usemi wa kisanii wa kimapokeo unaofikiliwa na jamii kuwa wa kweli na unaotumia kufumbia
• Ragba
  • Aliona cha mtema kuni
  • Kilichompata peku na lungo kilimpata
  • Mambo yalimwendea visivyo
  • Alitamani mauti yaje yamwokoe
  • Maji yalizidi ynga
  • Alitamani dunia ipasuke immeze mzima mzima
  • Kumwashia kipofu taa
  • Alitia masikio pamba
  • Machozi ya majonzi
  • Lia kilio cha kite na shaka
  • Machozi yalimtoka kapakapa
  • Pyorea mdomo
  • Huzunika ghaya ya kuhuzunika
  • Machozi yalinienda mbilimbili
  • Kuwa na kamusi ya matusi
• Tashbihi
  • Pukutikwa na machozi ka,a ngamia
  • Tiririkwa na machozi kama maji mlimani
  • Bubunjikwa na machozi kama mfereji
  • Nuka kama mzoga
  • Mchafu kama fugo
• Takriri
  • Hakiri hakubali
  • Hajali jando wala togo
  • Si wa uji si wa maji
  • Kutomjulia heri wala shari
  • Akiulizwa haungani

Methali za Kutohadaika na Uzuri wa Nje wa Kitu na Tamaa

Hutumiwa kuwaonya adinasi dhidi ya kudanganyika au kuhadaika na uzuri wa kitu bila kudadisi matokeo na athari zake.

Methali ikiwa kama kichwa huhitajika kuelezea maana ya nje, ya ndani na matumizi
Mfano wa visa

• Kumkaribisha mtu nyumbani
• Kupatiwa lifti
• Biashara gushi
• Urembo
• Fisadi

Methali

• Uzuri wa mkakasi ndani kipande cha mti
• Hakuna kizuri kisichokuwa na dosari
• Penye urembo ndipo penye ulimbo
• Uzuri wa mkakasi, ukipata maji basi
• Vyote ving’aavyo sio dhahabu
• Tama ilimwua fisi
• Uzuri si hoja hoja ni tabia
• Mpanda farasi wawili hupasuka msamba
• Mtaka yote hukosa yote
• Mbio za sakafuni huishia ukingoni
• Mla kwa wawili hana mwisho mwema
• Penye uhondo pana uvundo
• Uzuri wa biyu ndani mabuu
• Usiache mbachao kwa msala upitao

Vipokezi vya methali

• Kwa yakini ______________
• Taib ___________
• Ama kweli ______________
• Kuntu _____________
• Ni jahara kama pengo kuwa _____________
• Ni wazi kama ju ala mtikati kuwa _____________
• Chambilecho wahenga au wazee wenye tabasuri tepetepe _______________

Nahau

• Maji kuzidi unga
• Kitumbua kiliingia mchanga
• Valia miwani
• Meza mrututu
• Meza mate machungu
• Tulia huku ukitolea kule
• Vimba kichwa
• Kuwa na mkono mrefu
• Bwaga zani

Takriri

• Dhahiri shahiri
• Haambiliki hasemezeki
• Hakanywi hakanyiki
• Kuwa kiguu na njia
• Hana harusi hana matanga

Ragba

• Walimdekeza mwana wao
• Alikuwa ndumakuwili aliyeuma ndani yakini kikulacho ki nguoni
• Alijaribu bahati kwani asiyekuwa na bahati habahatishi
• Pigwa kipopo
• Temea mate
• Kumwonea gere
• Mambo yalimwendea sambejambe
• Alilia kilio cha kite

Tashbihi

• Huzunika kama mfiwa
• Kuwa na wasiwasi kama mwasi
• Aminika kama njiwa
• Jambo wazi kama mchana
• Kuwa mzembe kama kupe

Insha ya Maelezo

Huitwa wasifu

Hutoa ufafanuzi kuhusu jambo, mtu, mahali au kitu fulani

Maelezo haya huwa ni sifa au hoja maalum

Insha hizi hutahadharisha, huelezea, huarifu na huburudisha

Mtahiniwa atangulize kwa ufafanuzi wa mada yake

Ahitimishe kwa kutoa changamotokwa waliohusika

Mtahiniwa asijadili chini ya hoja sita. Atoe hoja za ukweli

Mfano

• Athari za ukimwi
• Athari za dawa za kulevya
• Faida na Athari za teknolojia
• Mchezo niupendao
• Haki za watoto
• Faida ya elimu, miti na wanyamapori
• Ukosefu wa usalama
• Dawa za Kulevya

Haki na Ajira za Watoto

• Haki ni mstahiki au ni jambo ambalo ni halali ya mtu
• Mstahiki pia ni mtu mwenye haki ya kupata kitu
• Ajira ni kazi zinazofanywa katika mashamba, viwanda, nyumbani na migodini
• Watoto wanapopewa ajira ni kinyume cha sheria
• Baadhi ya haki hizi ni
  • Lishe bora
    • Watoto wanafaa wapewe mlo ulio na viinilishe muhimu kwa protini, kabohaidrati, madini na maji safi.
    • Wasipolishwa huenda wakaathiriwa na magonjwa kama kwashakoo, utapiamlo.
  • Mavazi
    • Humkinga dhidi ya mabadiliko ya hali ya anga
    • Huzuia maradhi kama mafua, nimonia na pumu
      Methali
      Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba
  • Makao salama
    • Humsitiri dhidi ya wanyama hatari, maadui na mabadiliko katika hali ya anga
  • Kupata elimu
    • Asibaguliwe kwa misingi ya jinsia, kidini, kikabila au rangi ya ngozi
    • Wasichana wasiozwe mapema
    • Wasijiingize katika vitendo vya ukosefu na maadili kama ukahaba
    • Wafundishwe maadili na nidhamu
      Methali
      Elimu haitekeki
      Elimu ni bahari
      Elimu haina mwisho
  • Afya njema
    • Watoto wanafaa kukulia katika mazingira safi
    • Wapewe matibabu wanapougua
    • Wapewe lishe bora
      Methali
      Afya ni bora kuliko mali
      Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba
  • Wakingwe dhidi ya dhuluma
    • Hii ni kama kuchomwa na kukatakatwa mwilini
    • Waadhibiwe kwa kadiri na wastani
    • Wakuzwe vyema kwa maadili na mapenzi
      Methali
      Mtoto umleavyo ndivyo akuavyo
      Masukuzi ya leo ndio msitu wa kesho
  • Wasiajiriwe
    • Hii ni kinyume na sheria katika katiba ya nchi
    • Waajiri huwatesa na kuwanyanyasa watoto
    • Wengine huwarapua kwa mijeledi
    • Wengine huajiri kama vijakazi, watwana

Michezo

Ni jambo lifanywalo kwa ajili ya kujifurahisha kujichangamsha au kupoteza wakati

Baadhi ya michezo

• Jugwe
• Gugwi
• Bembea
• Kibe
• Msabaka
• Kandanda
• Riadha
• Sarakasi
• Netiboli
• Naga
• Voliboli
• Gololi
• Hoki
• Langalanga
• Kriketi
• Mpira wa wavu

Kandanda

Pia huitwa kambumbu, soka , gozi au mpira wa miguu

Hushirikisha timu mbili pinzani
Wachezaji huvalia

• jezi
• Daluga
• Soksi
• Bukta

Katikati  ya uwanja huitwa kitovu/senta
Otea – kujificha kwa makusudi ya kushambulia kwa ghafla
Penalty – adhabu kwa mlindalango
Mlindalango, mdakaji, golikipa
Kimia
Refa/refarii
Mshika bendera/kibendera
Mhimili/goli
Ngware – cheza visivyo
Kipindi cha lala salama ni kipindi cha nwishi
Kadi nyekundu huonyesha kutimuliwa kwa mchezaji
Kadi ya jano – onyo

Huwa na wachezaji kumi na mmoja katika kila upande

• Walinzi au difensi
• Wachezaji wa kati
• Safu ya mashambulizi
• Wachezaji wa akiba
• Piga mkwanju
• Kocha/mkufunzi

Mapambo

• Uwanja ulijaa hadi pomoni
• Wachezaji walishonona
• Mdakaji aliudaka mpira ungedhani ni tumbili aliyedadia tawi la mti
• Pasi fupifupi na za uhakika ungedhani walikuwa na mashine miguuni
• Mpira haukulenga goli _______ kweli kulenga si kufuma
• Kuutia mpira vifuani kana kwamba una spaki za kuunasa
• Walinda ngome walikuwa imara kama chuma cha pua
• Kwenda kubwaga moyo baada ya kipindi cha kwanza
• Safu ya ilinzi ulikuwa imara kama ukuta uliotengenezwa kwa zege
• Enda nyatunyatu na kufyatua zinga la kombora
• Visha kanzu
• Nyota ya jaha
• Bao la kuta machozi
• Piga kombora kimo cha mbuzi , kuku au ngamia
• Mashabikiwalijawa na bashasha
• Kipindi cha pili tukihisi kuwa na nishati mpya
• Bao la bua liliweza kuzitubua nyoyo za wapinzani wetu
• Mrisi bin kappa

Dawa za Kulevya

Hatua

Kufafanua maana

Ni kitu chochote kinachoathiri fahamu au mwili wa binadamu
Dawa hizi ni kama vile

• Bangi
• Sigara
• Heroini
• Miraa/mirungi
• Pombe haramu

Anayeuza dawa hizi huitwa mlaguzi
Njia ya kutumia dawa hizi ni

• Hunuswa
• Hunywewa
• Hudungwa
• Hulambwa
• Hutafunwa

Madhara ya dawa za kulevya

• Kuvurugika kwa akili
• Mja hugeuka kuwa zuzu, mkia wa mbuzi
• Hupata ujasiri bandia
• Hujiingiza katika visanga
• Hudhuru afya
• Hukonda na kukondeana kama ng’onda
• Sura huambuliwa na kusawijika kama sokwe
• Utovu wa nidhamu
• Husheheni cheche za matusi
• Kutabawali kadamnasi
• Vaa mavazi vichungi na vioo
• Kuzorota kwa uchumi
• Kukosa elimu
• Jamaa hukosa mavazi, makao na mlo
• Humtilisha mtumiaja
• Husababisha uraibu
• Hushinda kutwa kucha wakitumia dawa hizo
• Huwa kupe
• Huwa maajenti wa mawakala
• Chanzo cha maafa
• Madereva hukosa kuwa waangalifu
• Huleta shinikizo la damu mwilini
• Ajali barasteni
• Wizi wa mabavu
• Kufanya mapenzi bila kinga

Tamati

• Changamoto/nasaha
• Wasiwe pweza kujipalia makaa
• Kizazi cha baadaye kitaangamia
• Kushirikiana kama kiko na digali kuangamiza janga hili
• Wito kwa serikali – kuwasaka
• Kufungua mashtaka

Mada

• KIDIMBWI CHA MANAYA
• NAULI YA AHERA
• BARABARA YA KUZIMU
• TARIKI YA MAUKO

Misemo

• Kujipalia makaa
• Bwaga zani
• Meza mrututu
• Tumbulia macho
• Gofu la mtu

Takriri

• Kufa kupona
• Kwa hali na mali
• Liwalo liwe
• Balaa belua
• Methali
• Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
• Mwiba wa kujidunga hauambiwi pole
• Ajali haina kinga
• Mchezea mavi humnukia
• Nzi kufia juu ya kindonda si haramu
• Masukuzi ya leo ndiyo msitu wa kesho
• Wazee hukumbuka vijana hukumbushwa

Tashbihi

• Konda kama ng’onda
• Nyong’onyea kama muwele wa malaria
• Dhaifu kama mkufu
• Epuka ambao kama mgonjwa wa ukoma/ebola

Umuhimu wa Maji

Mwongozo ambao ni mwanzo wa insha kisha aendeleze
Mfano
“maji yana manufaa anuwai ___________ ”

• Atoe hoja zisizopungua sita
• Iwe na mtiririko mmoja
• Sehemu ya hitimisho;atoe change moto kwa jamii au serikali

Mfano

UMUHIMU WA MAJi

Utangulizi

Maana ya maji
Maji ni kiowevu kisicho na rangi kinapatikana mtoni, ziwani, baharini na hata kutokana
na mvua
Maji ni uhai

Umuhimu wa maji

• Kukonga roho au kukata kiu
  Adinasi hukonga roho
  Huweza kuishi bila shabuka au shida yoyote
  Husaidia usagaji wa chakula
  Mapishi ya vyakula
  Chakula hulainika na kuwa na ladha
  Huimarisha siha/udole wa binadamu
  Humweupusha mlimwengu na magonjwa
• Usafi na unadhifu
  Kutakata mili ili kuepukana na magonjwa
  Kupiga deki
  Kusafisha mashine viwandani
  Kuwa mchafu kama fungo
  Kusafiri jongomeo baada ya kugua maradhi
• Usafiri baharini, maziwani na mitoni
  Kusafirisha shehena za mizigo
  Mizigo mizito kama nanga
  Vyombo hivi vya usafiri ni meli, motaboti, ngalawa, merikebu, mashua, manahodha na maserahangi
• Kuzungusha mitambo au mashine
  Hupata nguvu za umeme au nishati
  Nishati hizi huweza kutengeneza bidhaa za madini, vyakula na mavazi
• Makao ya wanyama
  Kama samaki, kiboko, mamba, kamba na kasa
  Samaki ni chakula murua kwa mja na humzuia mja kuoata ndwele
• Burudani na michezo
  Hamamu na mandibwi ya maji hutumika na wanamichezo kwa mashindano ya kuogelea
• Huwa sehemu ya ajira
• Huletea nchi pesa za kigeni
• Kuondoa uchafu baada ya kazi
• Maji ni asili ya uhai
• Kuuzima moto
• Kivutio cha watalii
• Kunyunyizia mimea maji

Viunganishi

• Mbali na _____________
• Fauka ya ______________
• Isitoshe _______________
• Zaidi ya ______________
• Hali kadhalika _______________

Hitimisho

• Nikilikunja jamvi ninawashauri ________________
• Hatuna la msalie mtume wala nabii ili kuyatumia maji ipasavyo __________________
• Ama kweli maji ni kito cha dhamani ambacho kinafaa kulindwa kwa hali na mali

Methali

• Maji yakimwagika hayazoleki
• Maji ya kifuu ni bahari ya uchungu
• Maji mapwa hayaogwi
• Maji ni uhai
• Maji hufuata mkondo
• Maji ukiyavulie nguo yaoge

Hotuba

Hotuba ni maneno au malezo maalum yanayotokana na mtu mmoja mbele ya hadhira

Anayetoa hotuba huitwa hatibu

Hadhira ni watu wanaohutubiwa

Hotuba inaweza kuwa ya

• Mwalimu mkuu juu ya wazazi
• Mwanasiasa nyakati za kampeni
• Maafisa wa serikali katika sherehe tofauti
• Rais akihutubia taifa

Mambo ya kuzingatia

• Kufuata itifaki
• Kutambua waliohidhuria kufuata cheo/mamlaka na umri
  Mfano “mwalimu mkuu, naibu wa mwalimu mkuu, viranja na wanafunzi wenzangu hamjambo? ______
• Wakati uliopo hutumika yaani usemi halisi
• Nafsi ya kwanza na ya pili hutumika
  Mfano
  Nimesimama kadamnasi nikiwa mzima kama kigongo ________
• Hutumia alama za kunukuuu ikiwa unahutubia kwa niaba ya mtu mwengine
  Mfano
  rais, naibu wa rais ______
• Kila hoja husimuliwa katika aya yake
• Hitimisho huhusu kuwashukuru wasikilizaji na pia kuwapa funzo au changa moto au nasaha

Umuhimu wa Elimu

Elimu ni mafunzo yanayopatikana shuleni na maishani
Hupevusha fikira
Mja hujielewa, huelewa wengine na ulimwengu
Huheshimiana
Huweza kutumia raslimali vilivyo
Elimu huondoa ujinga/ujuha
Mwanafunzi humakinika katika maisha ya baadaye
Msamiati

• Leo si jana, jana si leo
• Enda na ucheo, siende na uchwao

Elimu ya vitabu humsaidia mtu kuhifadhi siri ujumbe na kumbukumbu za kutumia na kizazi cha baadaye

Msamiati

• Elimu huboresha maisha
• Kujenga makao mazuri
• Kuwasaidia jamaa na jamii
• Elimu ni daraja la kuvusha mtu kwenye gange/kazi yenyefulusi nono
• Mtu hupata hela za kujimudu pasi kuwategemea wengine
  Methali
• Mtegemea cha nduguye hufa maskini
• Mtegemea nundu haachi kunona
• Mja hupewa heshima
  Ragba
• Nimesimama imara kama chuma cha pua
• Tisti kama ngarange za mvule
• Kidete kama kitawi cha mkarakala
  Pongezi za dhati
• Ninawapa mkono wa tahania kwa kufanya bidii za mchwa na duduvule
• Nawamiminia shukrani sufufu
• Ninawashukuru kwa kujitolea mhanga na kujifunga kibwebwe/masombo/kujikaza kisabuni

Methali

• Elimu ni bahari
• Elimu maisha si vitabu
• Elimu ni taa gizani hung’aa
• Elimu ni mali ambayo adui hawezi kuteka
• Elimu bila mali ni kama nta bila asali

Tashbihi

• Bidii za mchwa /duduvule
• Ng’aa kama mbalamwezi
• Pesa kama njugu
• Julikana kama pesa

Misemo

• Kujitolea mhanga
• Shika usukani
• Kuna kichwa
• Ambua kitu
• Tia pamba/nta

Mjadala

Insha sampuli hii huwa na sehemu mbili: Kuunga na kupinga
Mwanafunzi ana uhuru wa kuunga ama kupinga

Katika sehemu ya hitimisho mtahiniwa anatarajiwa kutoa mawazo yake

Tamati
Ningependa kuwajuza kuwa ______________
Ningeomba sote tupinge kwa jino na ukucha _____________
tusiwe kama chachandu wa kujipalia makaa kwa ______________

Teknolojia

Ni maarifa ya sayansi na matumizi yake katika mitambo, vyombo na zana katika viwanda, kilimo, ufundi na njia za mawasiliano
Mifano

• Kilimo 
  Trekta   
  Beleshi   
  Pilau   
  Mbolea   
  Toroli   
• Zana za vita   
  Manowari   
  Bazooka   
  Vifaru
  Darubini   
  Grunedi   
  Bunduki   
  Bastola
  Gomborora
  Nyambizi
  Mzinga
  Kombati
  Dirizi/dereya
• Mawasiliano
  Simu – tamba/rununu/mkono
  Tarakilishi
  Tovuti
  Kitenzambali
  Barua meme
  Kikotoo
  Kimemeshi
• Mitambo
  Kiyoyozi/feni/pauka/pangaboi
  Lifti/eleveta
  Kreni/winchi/kambarau
  Meli
  Ndege
  Mashua

Faida za Teknolojia

• Mawasiliano – kupasha habari
• Elimisha na kutumbuiza
  Methali
  Kipya kinyemi ngawa kindonda
• Utafiti
  Kuvumbua dawa za ndwele/mitambo kurahihisha kazi
  Mitambo ya kuchunguza hali ya anga
• Elimu
  Matumizi ya mitambo
  Kanda za video
  Methali
  Elimu ni bahari
  Elimu haitekeki
  Mali bila daftari hupotea bila habari
  Elimu bila mali ni kama sega bila asali
• Usalama
  Zana za vita
  Donge nono hupatikana baada yakuuza vifaa
  Methali
  Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
  Kilimo na ufugaji
  Pembenjeo – mbegu, mbolea, dawa
  Ghala la kuhifadhi mazao
  Mashine za kukama ng’ombe
  Methali
  Tembe na tembe huwa mkate
• Usafiri
  Vyombo vya majini, nchi kavu au barabara
  Kuokoa wakati na maisha
  Methali
  Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
• Mavazi
  Rahisisha kazi
  Kuimarisha uchumi wa nchi

Madhara

• Mmomonyoko wa maadili
• Huleta maradhi kama saratani
• Huleta maafa
• Punguza nafasi za kazi
• Kuiga tabia za kigeni
• Vita
• Kuwafanya waja kulaza damu
• Mambo mengine muhimu

Viunganishi vya insha ya maelezo

• Licha ya
• Fauka ya
• Aidha
• Zaidi ya
• Pia isitishe
• Mbali na
• Hali kadhalika

Insha ya Mazungumzo

Mazungumzo ni maongezi, mahojiano ama malimbano baina ya mtu na mwengine au kundi moja na jengine
Yanaweza kuwa Porojo/soga/domo
Ni mazungumzo ya kupitisha wakati
Kutafuta ujumbe maalum
Hufanywa kwa njia ya mahojiano
Kudadisi au kumwelekeza mtu
Baina ya mtu na tajriba na Yule anayetakamsaada

• Mhusika mmoja asichukue nafasi kubwa
• Tumia alama za uakifishaji kama vile koloni, kitone na kipumuo
• Sharti pawe na mahali pa kumchachawiza
• Vitendo viweze kuandikwa katika alama za mabano
• Fani za lugha zitumike ili kuleta uhondo
• Pawe na maagano

Hatua

• Mada/kichwa
  Huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa kupigiwa mstari
• Maudhui
  Ni lengo au kusudi la mazungumzo
  Msamiati kutegemea lengo la mazungumzo
• Vitendo na ishara
  Haya yataandikwa katika mabano (akitari, akilia, akicheka)
• Alama za uakifishaji
  • Koloni( : ) Huandikwa baada ya jina au cheo cha watu
  • Alama za dukuduku ( _ _ _ ) Mazungumzo yanaendelea
  • Parandesi au mabano ( ) Kubana maneno ambayo hayatasemwa
  • Alama ya hisi ( ! ) Hutumiwa pamoja na viigizi kuonyesha hisia

Insha za Hadithi

Hadithi hutambiwa kwa njia ya kusimuliwa
Hurejelea matukio au visa vyenye nasaha kwa jamii
Visa hivi hutumiwa

• Kuelimisha
• Kushauri
• Kuonya
• Bidii
• Kuonyesha umoja

Enzi za kale watoto walisimuliwa visa hivi na babu au nyanya wakati wa jiono
Mifano

• Abunuwasi
• Shamba la wanyama
• Sungura mwenye pembe
• Shujaa fumo liyongo

Ikiwa kisa kilisimuliwa na mwingine mwanafunzi atahitajika kunukuu kazi yake
Mfano
“ babu alizoea kutuambia ngano.alianza hivi ____________”

Baada ya kuhitimisha kisa mtahiniwa anahitajika kufunga
Ahitimishe kwa ushauri au nasaha

Insha hii yaweza kuchukua mikondo tofauti

• Furaha
• Majuto
• Huzuni
• Bidii

Tanbihi
Sanasana wahusika huwa wanyama ambao huwa na hisia za binadamu

Jinsi ya kuanzisha

• Paukwa?pakawa!
• Aliondokea chanjagaa kujenga nyumba kaka mwanangu mwana siti kijino kama chikichi cha kujengea vikuta na vilango vya kupitia
• Hapo zama za zama _____________
• Hapo kale ___________
• Hapo jado aliondokea _____________
• Enzi za konga mawe ______________
• Miaka na dahari iliyopita ___________________
• Katika karne za mababu na bibi zetu _____________________
• Miaka na mikaka iliyopita _____________
• Hadithi!hadithi! hapo zama za kale katika kaya/kijiji ______________

Fani za lugha

Takriri

• Miaka na mikaka
• Dhahiri shahiri
• Hana hanani
• Maskini hohehahe
• Daima dawamu
• Afriti kijiti

Misemo

• Salimu amri
• Shika sikio
• Temea nasaha mate
• Valia miwani
• Tia kapuni
• Mambo kuenda shoro
• Kutojulia heri wala shari
• Kuwa fremu ya mtu

Tashbihi

• Roho ngumu kama paka
• Zurura kama mbwa msokwao/mbwakoko
• Tabia kunuka kama kindonda/beberu
• Macho mekundu kama ngeu/damu
• Kuchukua wekundu wa moto

Methali

• Bendera hufuata upepo
• Sikio la kufa halisikii dawa
• Kutosikia la mwadhini wala la mteka maji msikitini
• Nzi kufia juu ya kindonda si haramu
• Maji hufuata mkondo
• Aambiwaye akakataa hujionea

Ragba

• Kabla ya mwadhini kuadhana adhna zake
• Maji kwa pakacha
• Julikana kwa ufedhuli
• Kuwa sawa na kutumbutia maji
• Andamana na makundi yenye mienendo benibeni
• Heshima likawa neno geni kwake
• Lala kitandani hoi akiwangoja pumzi yake ya mwisho
• Lia kilio cha mbwa

Hitimisho

• Nyanya/babu alitueleza bayana umuhumu wa
• Hapo ndipo niliposandiki kuwa
• Ulumbi wa ulidhihirika waziwazi kuwa

• Mnyambuliko wa Vitenzi
  • Kauli ya Kutendeshwa/Fanyisha
  • Kauli ya Kutendeta
  • Sifa Kutokana na Vitenzi
• Tanakali za Sauti
• Matumizi ya Vihusishi ‘katika’ na Viambishi Tamati –ni’
• Alama za Uakifishaji
  
  • Nusukoloni /Semikoloni/Nukta kipumuo (;)
  • Koloni/Nuktambili/Nukta pacha (:)
• Ukubwa, Udogo na Wastani wa Nomino
• Kukanusha
  • Kukanusha Amri
  • Wingi na Kukanusha
• Vivumishi
  • Vivumishi vya Pekee ingine na -o-te
• Vitawe
• Viwakilishi
• Ngeli na Viambishi Ngeli
  • Ngeli ya A-WA
  • Ngeli ya U-I
  • Ngeli ya KI -VI
  • Ngeli ya LI-YA
  • Ngeli ya U-YA
  • Ngeli ya YA-YA
  • Ngeli ya I-ZI
  • Ngeli ya U-ZI
  • Ngeli ya U-U
  • Ngeli ya Ku
  • Ngeli ya I-I
  • Ngeli ya PA KU MU

Mnyambuliko wa Vitenzi

Huku ni kuvibadili vitenzi kwa kurefusha viambishi tamati ili kuleta kauli mbalimbali Kauli hizi ni.

• Tendana: uma - umana
• Tendesha: lala – laza
• Tendeka: Lima – limika

Huu ni upachikaji wa viambishi kwenye mzizi wa kitenzi ili kuunda vitenzi vipya

Kauli ya Kutendeshwa/Fanyisha

Huonyesha kuwa kitendo kimesababishwa na kitu Fulani

Vitenzi hivi hutambulishwa na vitenzi vya, za, sha, fya, na ,sa

Kauli ya Kutendata

Kauli hii huonyesha dhana ya kurudia rudia tendo
Mfano
Kata – katakata
Imba – imbaimba
Tia – tiatia
Ruka – rukaruka

Sifa Kutokana na Vitenzi

Ni kuunda maneno yenye kivumishi au kusifu nomino kutoka kwenye viarafa

Sifa hizi huwa ni herufi kama f, v, mw
Mfano
Amini – mwaminifu
Sikia- sikivu
Tii – tiifu
Dhulumu – dhalimu

Tanakali za Sauti

Ni maneno yanayoonyesha au kuiga milio ya sauti, hali Fulani, sura au vitendo mbalimbali. Hutumia kusisitiza namna vitendo vilivyo, vinavyotendeka au kitakavyotendeka

Mfano:

• Funika gubigubi!
• Papatika papatupapatu!
• Kula fyu!
• Kuregea regerege!

Matumizi ya Vihusishi ‘katika’ na Kiambishi Tamati –ni’

Katika na –ni ni vihusishi vinavyotumiwa kumaanisha ndani ya au kwenye

Vihusishi hivi havitumiwi pamoja katika sentensi

Mfano

• Ingia katika darasani ni kosa
• Ingia darasani au ingia katika darasa ni sahihi

-ni huambishwa kwenye nomino za kawaida kisha nomino hiyo huorodheshwa katika ngeli ya PAKUMU
Pia hutumika kuonyesha ndani ya au mahali ndani
Mfano
Vijiko vimo jikoni
Walimu wamo majilisini

Katika

1. hutumiwa kuleta maana ya Miongoni mwa
   mtu mmoja katika wale ni mgonjwa
2. Wakati
   Tutakuwa na likizo katika mwezi wa Aprili
3. Ujumla wa vitu
   Wote walishiriki katika michezo hiyo

Alama za Uakifishaji

Ni alama zinazotumiwa ili kuwasilisha nia halisi na maana kamili ya kwenye maandishi

Alama hizi pia hufanya kusomeka kwa sentensi kuwa rahisi
Mfano

Nusukoloni /Semikoloni/Nukta kipumuo(;)

Hutumiwa kuunganisha mawazo mawili
Mfano
Ninataka kuondoka mapema; sipendi kuchelewa

Koloni/Nuktambili/Nukta pacha (:)

Hutumiwa kuonyesha orodha ndefu
Mfano
Nenda ununue vutu vifuatavyo:maziwa, mkate, sukari, mafuta na chumvi

Ukubwa, Udogo na Wastani wa Nomino

Ukubwa ni hali ya kukuza nomino na udogo ni hali ya kudunisha nomino
Wastani ni hali ya kawaida ya nomino

Nomino katika ukubwa huwekwa katika ngeli ya LI – YA na nomino katika hali ya udogo huwekwa
katika ngeli ya KI – VI

Zipo kanuni ambazo hutumiwa

• Nomino zenye silabi mbili- dodosha moja
  Mtu- jitu
• Nomino zinazoanza kwa ki dondosha ki pachika ji
  Kiatu-jiatu

Kukanusha

Kukanusha Amri

Wakati wa amri hukanushwa kwa kutumia si
Mifano
Aende – asiende
Nimpe – nisimpe
Ule – usile

Swali lije baadaye
Wewe kunywa dawa
Wewe usikunywe dawa

Wingi na Kukanusha

Wakati wa sasa hukanushwa kwa ha
Mifano 
unasoma – mnasoma – hamsomi
unakula – mnakula – hamli

Vivumishi

Vivumishi vya Pekee Ingine na -O-ote

Vivumishi hivi ni ote, o-ote, enye, enyewe na ingine

Vitawe

Ni maneno yaliyo na maana zaidi ya moja
Mfano

• Vua-toa samaki majini
          Toa nguo mwilini
• Ala-aina ya mfuko ambamo kisu hufichwa
        Tamko la kushangaa
        Aina yoyote ya chombo cha kufanyia kazi 

Viwakilishi

Ni neno linalosimama badala ya nomino kama yeye, sisi, wewe

Ngeli na Viambishi Ngeli

Mifano ya ngeli:

• A – WA
• U – YA
• I – ZI
• U – U
• YA – YA
• I – I

Ngeli ya A- WA

Ngeli hii inahusisha majina yenye sifa na hali ya wanyama, nyuni, malaika, samaki na wanadamu

Kutoa mifano katika umoja na wingi
Mfano
Mnyoo – minyoo
Kiwete – viwete
Nzi – nzi
Mkunga – mikunga

Ngeli ya U – I

Nomino za ngeli hii huchukua upatanisho wa U katika umoja na I katika wingi
Mifano
Mkono – mikono
Muundi – miundi
Mzigo – mizigo
Mtaa – mitaa
Muhula – mihula
Mwaka – miaka
Mlingoti – milingoti

Ngeli ya KI – VI

Nomino za ngeli hii ni vitu vya kawaida

Majina huanza kwa ‘ki’ katika umoja na ‘vi’ katika wingi

Mengine huanza kwa ‘ch’ kwa umoja na ‘vy kwa wingi
Mifano
Kiazi – viazi
Kiatu – viatu
Kioo – vioo
Kina – vina
Kikuba – vikuba
Cheti – vyeti
Chakula – vyakula
Chanda – vyanda
Chungu – vyungu

Wastani            udogo
Mlango             kilango
Mguu                 kiguu

Ngeli ya LI – YA

Maneno katika ngeli hii huanza na ma, me

Maneno yote katika hali ya ukubwa huingizwa katika ngeli hii
Mifano 
Dirisha – madirisha
Embe – maembe
Zulia – mazulia

Ukubwa

Guu – maguu
Jibwa – majibwa

Ngeli ya U – YA

Maneno katika ngeli hii huanza kwa U katika umoja na Ya katika wingi
Mifano
Ugonjwa – magonjwa
Uuaji – mauaji
Ujazi - majazi
Upana - mapana

Ngeli ya YA – YA

Nomino zote huanzia kwa ma
Mifano
Masihara - masihara
Matatu-  matatu
Makazi - makazi
Mahakama - mahakama
Maakuli - maakuli
Mawasiliano - mawasiliano

Ngeli ya I – ZI

Nomino hazibadiliki katika umoja na wingi
Mifano
Mashine - mashine
Sinia - sinia
Sahani - sahani
Ngozi - ngozi
Taa - taa
Pete - pete
Sakafu - sakafu
Shingo - shingo

Ngeli ya U – ZI

Maneno katika ngeli hii huwa na upatanisho wa U na ZI katka wingi
Mifano
Ubeti – beti
Uchane – chane
Uchega – chega
Ubavu – mbavu
Ubao – mbao
Ulimi – ndimi
Udevu – ndevu
Ujari – njari
Ujiti – njiti
Ugoe – ngoe
Uzi – nyuzi
Ufa – nyufa
Waadhi – nyaadhi
Walio – nyalio
Waraka – nyaraka

Ngeli ya U – U

Huchukua U katika umoja na U katika wingi
Kuelezea maneno hayabadiliki katika umoja na wingi
Mifano
Moto - moto
Ugali - ugali
Wema - wema
Ufisadi - ufisadi
Wizi - wizi
Ubaya - ubaya
Uzembe - uzembe

Ngeli ya KU

Maneno katika ngeli hii huchukua upatanisho wa kisarufi KU

Ngeli ya I – I

Majina ya nomino hii huchukua upatanisho wa sarufi kuwa I katika umoja na I katika wingi

Ngeli ya PA KU MU

Ni ngeli ya mahali

Huelezea hali tatu

• Hapa/hapo/pale- mahali dhahiri
• Huku/huko/kule – kusiko dhahiri
• Humo/humu/humo – mahali ndani

Kuelezea viambishi tofauti

• Friction.
  • Advantages of Friction.
  • Disadvantages of Friction.
  • Ways of Reducing Friction
  • Ways of Increasing Friction.
• Levers
  • First Class Lever
  • Second Class Lever
  • Third Class Lever.

Friction.

This is a type of force that occurs between two objects that are in contact.

Advantages of Friction.

• It helps in walking.
• Makes it possible to produce fire using a match stick.
• Helps in writing in both boards and books.
• Helps in rubbing or erasing.
• Helps in braking of vehicles and bicycles.

Disadvantages of Friction.

• Causes wearing out of objects eg bicycle tyres,soles, shirts etc
• It makes work difficult eg its difficult to pull or puss an object on a rough surface.
• Production of unwanted heat.

Ways of Reducing Friction.

1. Using rollers.
2. Smoothing/Polishing surfaces.
3. Using lubricants
4. Streamlining.

Ways of Increasing Friction.

1. Spreading of some course materials on the slippery grounds e.g murram.
2. Using tyres with treads
3. Replacing worn out parts of tools
4. Replacing of shoe soles.
5. Applying of glue on the surfaces.

Levers

These are simple machines that makes work easier.

They have Load, Effort and Fulcrum.

Load:- This is the work to be done
Effort:- This is the part which is held in the tool.
Fulcrum:- This is the turning point of the tool or of the tool and the part which is held.

First Class Lever

Here the fulcrum is in between the load and the effort as in.

• Crowbar
• Claw hammer.
• A pair of scissor
• Pliers etc

Second Class Lever

Here the load is in betwee the fulcrum and effort

• Wheelbarrow
• Door hing
• Lid opener
• Bottle opener etc

Third Class Lever.

Here the effort is in between the load and the fulcrum

• Spade
• Spoon
• Fishing line etc

• Methods of Separating Mixtures.
  • Magnetic Materials

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

A solute-This is the solid which dissolves in a liquid.

A solvent-Thus is the liquid in which the solid dissolves in.

A solution-This is what is formed when solute and solvent are mixed completely.

Soluble solids:-This are solids that dissolves completely in liquids.

Insoluble solids:-These are solids that do not dissolve in liquids when they are mixed.

Miscible liquids:-This are liquids that mix to form a uniform solution eg water and milk,water and spirit, cooking oil and paraffin etc.

Immiscible liquids:-This are liquids that when put together and shaken still forms layers eg water and paraffin.

Methods of Separating Mixtures.

1. Picking:-Involves use of hands to pick big solid particles from a mixture eg mixture of maize and beans, mixture of Stones from rice etc.
2. Winnowing:- Used i separation of light solid particles from the heavy ones using the wind eg a mixture of rice and husk, a
   mixture of sorghum from the chaffs etc.
3. Sieving:- Used in separating mixture of small and large solid particles where the small particles passes through the sieve
   leaving behind the big ones eg mixture of maize and millet.
4. Use of magnet:- Used in separating magnetic materials from non magnetic materials eg Flour and iron fillings
5. Decanting:-Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid by gently pouring out the liquids eg mixture water and cooked
   beans.
6. Filtering:- This involves using a filter paper or a cloth to separate a mixture eg a mixture of soil and water
   NB:-The water obtained from filtering is not safe for drinking as it may contain traces of the mixtures and also germs its
   therefore advisable to boil it again

Evaporation:-This is a method that is used to separate a mixture of soluble solid from a liquid but only the solidis recovered.

Home made water filter

Magnetic Materials

TINSCCA

• Tin
• Iron
• Nickel
• Steel
• Chromium.
• Cobalt
• Alnico

• Sources of Electricity.
• Good and Bad Conductors of Electricity
  • Electrical Appliances
  • Safety when Dealing with Electricity
• Lightning and Safety Measures.
  • Precautions against Lighting during Thunderstorm.

This is a form of energy.

Sources of Electricity.

There are two forms of electricity. ie Static and current electricity.

Static electricity is produced by rubbing two surfaces against each other.

Current electricity is produced from:

• Hydroelectric dams
• Diesel generators Car batteries.
• Geothermal wells.
• Torch cells.
• Solar batteries

Good and Bad Conductors of Electricity

Good Conductors - These are materials that allow electricity to pass through them.

Bad conductors -These are materials that do not allow electricity to pass through them.

Electrical Appliances

•  An electric iron-used for pressing clothes.
• An electric cooker- used for cooking.
• An electric kettle-Used for boiling water or making tea.
• Radio-Used to receive information transmitted from stations.

Safety when Dealing with Electricity

• Don't work near mains.
• Don't have cables running under a carpet.
• Don't overload sockets by plugging in many electrical appliances.
• Never throw objects at a wire carrying electricity.
• Don't touch sockets and swiches with wet hands.
• Don't try to repair electrical appliances unless you have the knowledge of what you are doing.

Lightning and Safety Measures.

Lightning is a strong form of static electricity that is caused by the charges brought about by clouds .

Lightning arrestors are always fitted on tall buildings so that it when lighting strikes,the charges reach the ground

Precautions against Lighting during Thunderstorm.

• Use shoes with rubber soles while walking in the open on a rainy day.
• Don't stand on a pool of water when its raining.
• Avoiding leaning against the wall when its raining.
• Avoid carrying metallic and sharp-pointed objects when it is raining.
• When lightning strikes,it often hits tall objects before spreading to other objects in the area.
• Avoiding walking in open fields.

• Soil Fertility.
• Types of Fertilizers
  • Straight Fertilizer
  • Compound Fertilizer
• Advantages of using Manures and fertilizers.

Soil Fertility.

This is the ability of the soil to produce high yields for a long time.

Fertilizer: These are organic or inorganic substances that are added to soil that have lost their fertility.

They are grouped into natural fertilizers and artificial fertilizers.

Green Manure:They are made from green plants,these plants should be:

• Leafy.
• Able to grow fast.
• Able to decay quickly
• Contain a high amount of nitrogen.

Farmyard manure: They are made from animals wastes such as urine,dung, poultry droppings and animal bedding.
Compost manure: This is a mixture of decayed plants,animal waste,leaves and vegetable peelings

How to encourage fast decomposition of compost heap:

• Keeping the heap moist.
• Adding a layer of decayed materials rich in bacteria.
• Adding a layer of topsoil to introduce decomposers.
• Covering the heap duriing the wet season.
• Turning the heap occasionally,at leastafter 3-4weeks to allow circulation of air.
  NB:Farmyard manure introduces bacteria.

Mulches: These are plant materials such as plant leaves and dry grass which are used as soil cover.

Types of Fertilizers (Inorganic manure)

They are classified into two:

• Straight fertilizer
• Compound fertilizer.

Straight Fertilizers:

They contain only one macronutrient.

Examples of nitrogenous fertilizer.

• Calcium Ammonium Nitrate.
• Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate.
• Urea

Examples of Phosphatic fertilizers.

• Single super phosphate.
• Double super phosphate

Examples of potassic fertilizers.

• Muriate of potash.
• Sulphate of potash.

Compound Fertilizers:

They provide two or more of the macronutrients to a plant.

Examples of compound fertilizers.

• Diammonium Phosphate(DAP)
• Nitrogen, Phosphorus,Potassium(NPK)

Advantages of using Manures and fertilizers.

• Results in high growth rate of crops.
• Leads to high crop yields which are of high quality.
• Leads to growth of crops that are deep green in colour.
• Encourage the vegetative growth.
• Leads to quick ripening of fruits.
• Provides the necessary nutrients for growth and development of crops.
• Increase the size of seeds,grain and fruits.
• Strengths the plantstems that support the plant.
• Improves soil fertility.

Disadvantages of Using Manures and Fertilizers.

• Some are expensive to prepare eg Green manure.
• Some pollutes the environment if not use by plants immediately eg Inorganic manure.
• Some fertilizers are corrosive.
• Some manures and fertilizers scorch the plant if applied in great quantities.

Activity 2: State other advantages and disadvantages of using manures.and fertilizers

• Water pollution.
  • Causes of Water Pollution
  • Effects of Water Pollution.
  • Controlling Water Pollution.
• Conservation of Water
  • Ways of Conserving Water.

Water Pollution

This involves making water impure or contaminating it.

Causes of Water Pollution

• Floods
• Human and animals waste
• Oil spillage
• Waste from industries.
• Uncontrolled use of farm chemicals.
• Acid rain

Effects of Water Pollution.

• Blocking the root hair.
• Acidic rain causes harm to plants since they cannot grow well in acidic rain.
• Dissolved chemicals substances and fertilizer may cause harm to animals.
• Oil spillage prevents entry of oxygen in water leading to suffocation and death.

Controlling Water Pollution.

• Practising proper hygiene.
• Practising farming methods.
• Drawing water for animals instead of taking them to water sources.
• Controlling the dumping of industrial waste into water sources.
• Clearing accidental oil spills as soon as they happen.
• Controlling the use of farm chemicals.

Conservation of Water

Conservation means proper care and use of water sources.

It ensures water isused sparingly and conserved for future use.

Ways of Conserving Water.

• Harvesting rain water.
• Recycling water.
• Re-using water.
• Using water sparingly.
• Mulching and shading.
• Construction of dams