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Pronouns - Class 8 English Revision Notes
- Personal pronouns
- Possessive Pronouns
- Demonstrative Pronouns
- Indefinite Pronouns
- Reflexive Pronoun
- Interrogative Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of speech that takes the place of a noun. They include such words as I, we, he, she, thy, me and us.
Pronouns enable you to avoid repeating the same names (nouns), when writing or speaking, which would otherwise make you sound very awkward and wordy. By using pronouns effectively, you can make your writing and speaking flow smoothly.
Pronouns can be classified into 6 types. These are personal, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, reflexive and intensive pronouns.
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. They are used to refer to nouns that name persons or things.
Example:
- Awkward Kamau put on Kamau’s gum boots. Then Kamau went to the shamba.
- Improved Kamau put on his gum boots. Then he went to the shamba.
In the above example, the personal pronoun his helps the writer avoid repeating the same noun. The pronoun he acts as a bridge to connect the two sentences.
Personal pronouns are further classified in terms of person and gender.
Person
In terms of person, personal pronouns can be divided into three classes.
- First person – I, my, me, we, our and us.
These ones refer to the person(s) speaking.
Example: I always ride my bike to school. - Second person – you, your, yours
These refer to the person(s) spoken to.
Example: I will call you tomorrow. - Third person – he, his, him, she, hers, her, it, its, they, their, them.
These ones refer to another person(s) or thing(s) that is being spoken of.
The personal pronoun it usually replaces a noun that stands for a thing or an animal. It is never used in place of a person.
Gender
Personal pronouns can also be classified by gender. Gender can either be masculine
(referring to male people), feminine (referring to female people) or neuter (referring to
animals or things).
Examples:
- Joseph cleaned his car. (His is the third person, masculine gender).
- Isabel said the dress was hers (Hers is the third person, feminine gender).
- The dog wagged its tail. (Its is the third person, neuter gender).
Forms of Personal Pronouns
In English, personal pronouns have three forms: the subject form, the object form and the possessive form.
Examples:
- She is a painter (subject form)
- He praised her. (Object form)
- It is her best painting. (Possessive form)
Subject Pronouns
A subject pronoun takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. These pronouns are:
- Singular forms – I, you, he, she, it
- Plural forms – we, you, they
Examples:
Noun Subject Pronoun
The housegirl takes care of the baby She takes care of the baby
The dog guards the house It guards the house
Mark and Francis love swimming They love swimming
Subject pronouns also appear after forms of the linking verbs be.
Examples:
- The watchman today is he.
- The composers were they.
Object pronouns
Object pronouns can replace nouns used after action verbs. These pronouns are:
- Singular – me, you, him, her, it
- Plural – us, you them
Examples:
- The driver drove him. (direct object)
- The parents thanked us. (direct object)
- The reporters asked him many questions. (indirect object)
In the above examples, the personal pronouns are the direct or indirect objects of the verbs before them.
Object pronouns can also replace nouns after prepositions such as to, for, with, in, at or by. That is, they can be objects of prepositions.
Examples:
- Gladys waved to them. (object of a preposition)
- The delivery is for me.
- Ben went with them to the theatre.
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun shows ownership.
Example: My pen is black.
There are two kinds of possessive pronouns:
- Those used as adjectives to modify nouns. These possessive pronouns are:
Singular: My, your, his, her, its
Plural: Our, your, their
Examples:- My shirt is yellow.
- Your food is on the table.
- His bag is green.
- This is her dress.
- Its fur is soft.
- These are our parents.
- Pay your bills.
- They removed their bats.
The above possessive pronouns always appear before nouns to modify them. Hence, they are called modifiers.
- Those that stand alone and replace nouns in sentences. These possessive nouns are:
Singular: mine yours his, hers, its
Plural: ours yours, their
Examples:- The yellow shirt is mine.
- The food on the table is yours.
- The green bag is his.
- This dress is hers.
- Its is the soft fur.
- These crops are ours.
- These bills are yours.
- Those hats are theirs.
Points To Note
- The pronoun I is used as a subject or after forms of the linking verb be.
Examples:
Subject: I travel by bus
After the linking verb be: Yesterday, the prefects on duty were Victor and I - The pronoun me is used object after action verbs or words (prepositions) such as to, for, with, in, or at.
Examples:
Object: Rose met me at the gate.
After prepositions: Rose waited for me at the gate.
You are coming with me. - When using compound subjects and objects (i.e. subjects and objects comprising of a pronoun and a noun or another pronoun), always name yourself last.
Examples:
Diana and I visited our grandmother yesterday.
Who appointed Chege and me?
Rose waited for her and me at the gate. or at.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is used to single or point out one or more persons or things referred to in the sentence.
These pronouns are this, that, these, and those.
This and these point to persons or things that are near.
Examples:
- This is a gazelle.
- These are the students of Kianjege West Secondary School.
That and those point to persons or things that are farther away.
Examples:
- That is the city square.
- Those are the lodging rooms.
- This and that are used with singular nouns.
- These and those are used with plural nouns.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or thing.
In English, there are singular indefinite pronouns, plural indefinite and both singular and plural indefinite pronouns.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
another anything everybody neither one
anybody each everyone nobody somebody
anymore either everything no one someone.
An indefinite pronoun must agree with its verbs and in number with its possessive
pronoun. The above indefinite pronouns are used with singular verbs. They are also used
with singular possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Agreement with verbs
Correct: Everyone has heard of Lake Turkana.
Incorrect: Everyone have heard of Lake Turkana.
Correct: Nobody knows what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Incorrect: Nobody know what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Correct: Everything about the old man remains a mystery.
Incorrect: Everything about the old man remain a mystery.
Agreement in number with possessive pronouns
Correct: Neither believed his/her eyes.
Incorrect: Neither believed their eyes.
Correct: Each strained his/her neck to see.
Incorrect: Each strained their neck to see.
Plural indefinite pronouns
both many few several
These indefinite pronouns use plural verbs and possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Plural verbs
Correct: Few know about Lake Olbolsat.
Incorrect: Few knows about Lake Obolsat.
Correct: Both stand by what they believe.
Incorrect: Both stands by what they believe.
Plural possessive pronouns
Correct: Several reported their findings.
Incorrect: Several reported his/her findings.
Both singular and plural indefinite pronouns
all some any none
These indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural, depending on their meaning in the
sentence.
Examples:
All of my story is true – singular
All of the guests are here – plural
None of the lake is foggy – singular
None of the photos are spoiled – plural.
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive and intensive pronouns end in -self or -selves. These are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, and themselves.
A reflexive pronoun refers to an action performed by the subject of the sentence. The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun.
Examples:
- Monicah bought herself a new dress. (The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun because we do not know for whom Monicah bought the dress).
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what.
Examples:
Who is the mayor of this town?
Whose is the red car?
Which is her blouse?
What did she ask you?
Whom should I trust with my secret?
Using Who, Whom, and Whose
Who, whom, and whose are often used to ask questions. Hence, they are interrogative pronouns.
WHO is the subject form. It is used as the subject of a verb.
Examples:
Who taught you how to play the guitar? (Who is the subject of the verb taught.)
WHOM is the object form. It is used as the direct object of a verb or as the object of a preposition.
Examples:
Whom did you meet? (Whom is the object of the verb did meet).
For whom is this trophy? (whom is the object of the preposition for).
WHOSE is the possessive form. It can be used :
- To modify a noun
Example:
Whose is umbrella is this? (whose modifies the noun umbrella) - Alone as the subject or object of a verb
Examples:
Whose are those water melons? (whose is the subject of the verb are)
Whose did you admire? (whose is the object of the verb did admire)
Nouns and Articles - Class 8 English Revision Notes
Nouns
Nouns can be singular or plural.
SINGULAR: banana
PLURAL: bananas
Spelling Rules for Plural Nouns | ||
Noun Ending | Rule | Examples |
a consonant or a vowel (most regular nouns) | add -s | a bed→beds, a table→ tables |
-s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x | add -es | a bus →buses a match →matches a glass →glasses a fox → foxes a dish → dishes |
a consonant + y | change y to i and add -es | a dictionary → dictionaries |
-f or -fe | change -f/-fe to v and add -es | a leaf → leaves a knife → knives |
Vowels: a, e, i, o, u
Consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z
Categorization of Nouns
Nouns are words that represent people, places, things, or ideas.
- Person
John went to the new theater last week with his father.
examples: brother, mailman, chef, assistant, friend, king - Place
We met our neighbors at the arcade.
examples: beach, zoo, home, Spain, woods, work, school - Thing
I found the keys under the sofa.
examples: eraser, chain, picture, door, pen, tractor, stick - Idea
Happiness is very important.
examples: sadness, freedom, fun, love, anger
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable.
Countable nouns represent things that can be counted as individuals. Use a, many, few, or numbers
- I bought eleven CDs and a new book.
- We saw many cars and a few vans. before countable nouns.
Countable nouns: apple, ant, bag, book, cat, chair, donut, friend, house, jacket, map, neighbor, page, question, raft, stove
Uncountable nouns represent things that cannot be counted as individuals. Use much, little, some or any* (for negatives and questions) before uncountable nouns.
- I had some soup before dinner.
- I didn’t have any coffee.
- Did you have any fun at the zoo?
- Yes, we had some fun at the zoo.
Uncountable nouns: bread, cheese, coffee, food, fruit, furniture, homework, mail, meat, milk, music,
paper, rice, soup, water
NB: Some and any can also be used with countable nouns. Any is used for questions and negatives. Some is used when the exact number is not known or is not important.
Example: Do you have any apples? Yes, we have some apples in the fridge
Articles
Articles are a, an, and the. Sometimes no article is used.
- A baby cries.
- An alligator swims.
- The teenagers whisper.
- Apples are delicious.
A is for singular nouns. It goes in front of consonant sounds.
- A zebra has stripes.
- Nick eats a sandwich.
An is for singular nouns. It goes in front of vowel sounds.
- An iris is a flower.
- John sees an airplane.
The is for singular or plural nouns. It goes in front of consonant or vowel sounds.
The is used for things that are already known or introduced. The is also used when the noun it precedes is the only one of its kind
- Nick eats a sandwich. The sandwich is delicious.
- John sees an airplane. The airplane is in the sky.
- The moon is in the sky. (There is only one moon and one sky.)
- Some apples are in the fridge. (Most people only have one fridge in their homes.
Words beginning with u often have a y(ju) sound. In this case, a is used.
Y SOUND: A unicorn has a horn.
U SOUND: Amy has an umbrella.
H is often silent when it begins a word. In this case, an is used.
SILENT: An hour is a long time.
SPOKEN: Sarah has a hamster
Generic Statements
Generic statements are sentences that provide information that is true most or all of the time.
Generic statements often use the verb Be.
- I am a student.
- She is tall.
- They are my parents
Some generic statements use the verb Have.
- Insects have six legs.
- He has blue eyes.
Other generic statements use verbs that describe a state or condition.
- Candy tastes sweet.
- Feathers feel soft.
Other state or condition verbs: look, smell, taste, sound, like, love, hate, think, believe
Subjective Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives
Subject Pronouns refer to nouns. They replace subjects.
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
- John plays basketball. He is athletic. (He = John)
- Lisa and Tom play musical instruments. They take lessons. (They = Lisa and Tom)
Possessive Adjectives show ownership or relationship. They often go before nouns.
My, your, his, her, its*, our, their
- My hair is brown.
- Amy and her brother have a pet rabbit.
- Their rabbit eats lettuce
NB:Its is a possessive adjective. It’s = It is
Possessives
Possessives show who or what an object belongs to.
Usually, ‘s is added to the end of a noun to show ownership of the noun coming after it.
- I like John‘s haircut.
- My mother‘s car broke down.
For plural nouns that end in -s, only the apostrophe is added to show ownership.
- The girls’ gym is over there.
- The boys’ hockey team plays tomorrow
When showing ownership for more than one noun, only the last noun takes the ‘s or the apostrophe.
- Sam, Dawn, and Kim’s teacher was absent from school yesterday.
- The lions and tigers’ cages are always cleaned on Mondays.
For proper nouns (names) that end in -s, ‘s is added to show ownership.
- James‘s bike is blue.
- Julius‘s house is near the river
Of can also be used to show ownership. In this case the noun representing the owned thing comes first.*
- The father of the student (= the student’s father)
- The king of Spain (= Spain’s king)
NB:This form is usually used when the owner is a place or thing, not a person.
List of Idioms - Class 8 English Revision Notes
- A hot potato
Speak of an issue which many people are talking about and which is usually disputed - A penny for your thoughts
A way of asking what someone is thinking - Actions speak louder than words
People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what they say. - Add insult to injury
To further a loss with mockery or indignity; to worsen an unfavorable situation. - An arm and a leg
Very expensive or costly. A large amount of money. - At the drop of a hat
Meaning: without any hesitation; instantly. - Back to the drawing board
When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over. - Ball is in your court
It is up to you to make the next decision or step - Barking up the wrong tree
Looking in the wrong place. Accusing the wrong person - Be glad to see the back of
Be happy when a person leaves. - Beat around the bush
Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue. - Best of both worlds
Meaning: All the advantages. - Best thing since sliced bread
A good invention or innovation. A good idea or plan. - Bite off more than you can chew
To take on a task that is way to big. - Blessing in disguise
Something good that isn't recognized at first. - Burn the midnight oil
To work late into the night, alluding to the time before electric lighting. - Can't judge a book by its cover
Cannot judge something primarily on appearance. - Caught between two stools
When someone finds it difficult to choose between two alternatives. - Costs an arm and a leg
This idiom is used when something is very expensive. - Cross that bridge when you come to it
Deal with a problem if and when it becomes necessary, not before. - Cry over spilt milk
When you complain about a loss from the past. - Curiosity killed the cat
Being Inquisitive can lead you into an unpleasant situation. - Cut corners
When something is done badly to save money. - Cut the mustard
To succeed; to come up to expectations; adequate enough to compete or participate - Devil's Advocate
To present a counter argument - Don't count your chickens before the eggs have hatched
This idiom is used to express "Don't make plans for something that might not happen". - Don't give up the day job
You are not very good at something. You could definitely not do it professionally. - Don't put all your eggs in one basket
Do not put all your resources in one possibility. - Drastic times call for drastic measures
When you are extremely desperate you need to take drastic actions. - Elvis has left the building
The show has come to an end. It's all over. - Every cloud has a silver lining
Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better days. - Far cry from
Very different from. - Feel a bit under the weather
Meaning: Feeling slightly ill. - Give the benefit of the doubt
Believe someone's statement, without proof - Hear it on the grapevine
This idiom means 'to hear rumors' about something or someone. - Hit the nail on the head
Do or say something exactly right - Hit the sack / sheets / hay
To go to bed. - In the heat of the moment
Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment. - It takes two to tango
Actions or communications need more than one person - Jump on the bandwagon
Join a popular trend or activity. - Keep something at bay
Keep something away. - Kill two birds with one stone
This idiom means, to accomplish two different things at the same time. - Last straw
The final problem in a series of problems. - Let sleeping dogs lie
Do not disturb a situation as it is - since it would result in trouble or complications. - Let the cat out of the bag
To share information that was previously concealed - Make a long story short
Come to the point - leave out details - Method to my madness
An assertion that, despite one's approach seeming random, there actually is structure to it. - Miss the boat
This idiom is used to say that someone missed his or her chance - Not a spark of decency
Meaning: No manners - Not playing with a full deck
Someone who lacks intelligence - Off one's rocker
Crazy, demented, out of one's mind, in a confused or befuddled state of mind, senile. - On the ball
When someone understands the situation well. - Once in a blue moon
Meaning: Happens very rarely. - Picture paints a thousand words
A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words. - Piece of cake
A job, task or other activity that is easy or simple. - Put wool over other people's eyes
This means to deceive someone into thinking well of them. - See eye to eye
This idiom is used to say that two (or more people) agree on something. - Sit on the fence
This is used when someone does not want to choose or make a decision. - Speak of the devil!
This expression is used when the person you have just been talking about arrives. - Steal someone's thunder
To take the credit for something someone else did. - Take with a grain of salt
This means not to take what someone says too seriously. - Taste of your own medicine
Means that something happens to you, or is done to you, that you have done to someone else - To hear something straight from the horse's mouth
To hear something from the authoritative source. - Whole nine yards
Everything. All of it. - Wouldn't be caught dead
Would never like to do something - Your guess is as good as mine
To have no idea, do not know the answer to a question
List of Similes - Class 8 English Revision Notes
This is a list of well-known as...as similes. There are more similes, of course, some common and
others less common because anyone can make a simile at any time--you too!
simile meaning comment as alike as two peas in a pod identical or nearly so as bald as a coot completely bald as big as a bus very big as big as an elephant very big as black as a sweep completely black sweep = chimney sweep as black as coal completely black as black as pitch completely black as blind as a bat completely blind may be exaggeration as blind as a mole completely blind may be exaggeration as bold as brass very bold usually in a negative sense as brave as a lion very brave as bright as a button very bright as bright as a new pin very bright and shiny as busy as a beaver very busy as busy as a bee very busy as busy as a cat on a hot tin roof very busy as calm as a millpond very calm and still usually said of water as clear as a bell very clear of a sound as clean as a whistle very clean as clear as crystal very clear as clear as mud not at all clear irony or sarcasm as cold as ice very cold as common as dirt very common, rude, vulgar usually said of a person as cool as a cucumber cool as cunning as a fox cunning as dead as a doornail dead as dead as the dodo dead, extinct the dodo is an extinct bird as deaf as a post completely deaf may be exaggeration as different as chalk from cheese very different as drunk as a lord completely drunk as dry as a bone very dry as dry as dust very dry as dull as dishwater dull, boring usually said of a person as easy as A.B.C. very easy as easy as apple-pie very easy as flat as a pancake completely flat as free as a bird very free to go anywhere as fresh as a daisy very fresh as gentle as a lamb very gentle usually said of a person as good as gold very good and obedient usually said of a person as happy as a lark very happy usually said of a person as hard as nails very tough in character of a person as hot as hell very hot as hungry as a bear very hungry as hungry as a wolf very hungry as innocent as a lamb innocent, not worldly-wise usually said of a person as large as life conspicuously present as light as a feather very light as light as air very light as mad as a hatter completely crazy as mad as a hornet very angry as nutty as a fruitcake completely crazy as obstinate as a mule very obstinate, stubborn as old as the hills very, very old as pale as death very pale or white in the face of a person as plain as day very clear as poor as a church mouse poverty-stricken as poor as dirt poverty-stricken as proud as a peacock very proud as pure as snow pure and innocent as pure as the driven snow pure and innocent as quick as a wink very quick(ly) as quick as lightning very quick(ly) as quick as silver very quick as quiet as a church mouse very quiet as safe as houses very safe, secure as scarce as hen's teeth very, very scarce irony (hens have no teeth) as sharp as a razor very sharp as sick as a dog very sick as sick as a parrot very sick as silent as the dead completely silent as silent as the grave completely silent as slippery as an eel slippery, evasive of a person as slow as a snail very slow as slow as a tortoise very slow as smooth as silk very smooth as snug as a bug in a rug in a very comfortable position humorous as sober as a judge sober as solid as a rock solid as solid as the ground we stand on solid as sound as a bell very clear of a sound as sour as vinegar very sour as steady as a rock very steady as stiff as a board completely stiff as straight as an arrow straight an arrow flies straight as strong as an ox very strong as stubborn as a mule very stubborn, obstinate as sturdy as an oak very strong and solid as sure as death and taxes absolutely certain to happen as tall as a giraffe very tall as thin as a rake very thin as timid as a rabbit very timid as tough as leather very tough as tough as nails very tough often said of a person as tough as old boots very tough often said of a person as welcome as a skunk at a lawn party not welcome at all irony or sarcasm (skunks stink) as white as a ghost very pale or white in the face of a person as white as a sheet pure white as white as snow pure white as wise as Solomon very wise King Solomon as wise as an owl very wise |
Sarufi na Matumizi ya Lugha - Class 8 Kiswahili Revision Notes
- Vihisishi
- Vivumishi
- Viunganishi
- Viulizi
- Vielezi
- Ngeli pamoja Na Kirejeshi Amba
- Kirejeshi-amba
- Matumizi ya -ndi
- Matumizi ya -si
- Matumizi ya Na
- Matumizi ya katika, Ni, kwenye
- Usemi Halisi na Taarifa
- Mnyambuliko wa vitenzi
- Ukubwa na Udogo
Vihisishi
Kuelezea maana ya vihisishi
Hutumiwa kuonyesha hisi au hisia ya msemaji kidhihirisha
- Furaha
- Mshangao
- Mshtuko
- Hasira
- Uchungu
- Maumivu
- Uchovu
- Huruma
- Dharau
- Wito
- Laana
Kutunga sentensi akitumia vihisishi alivyopatiwa
Vivumishi
Vivumishi ni maneno yanayotumiwa kuelezea zaidi kuhusu nomino
Aina za Vivumishi
- A -Unganifu
- Sifa
- Pekee
- Viulizi
- Idadi
- Vimilikishi
- Viashiria
Viunganishi
Neno linalotumiwa kuunganisha neno na neno, sentensi na sentensi, wazo na wazo
Kutoa mifano tofauti ya viunganishi
- Kasoro-lakini, bali
- Kusalia kitu kimoja-ila, isipokuwa
- Kinyume na matarajio-ingawa, ijapo, ilhali
- Kulinganisha kuonyesha tofauti
- Kuongezea-aidha, mbali na, licha ya
- Kuwaongoza kutunga sentensi
A - Unganifu
Kijineno kinachotokana na kuambatanisha A na herufi tofauti kwa kutegemea ngeli
Jedwali
Ngeli A-unganifu
A – WA wa - wa
KI – VI cha - vya
LI – YA la - ya
U – I wa - ya
U – ZI wa- za
I – I ya - ya
U – U wa - wa
U – YA wa - ya
YA – YA ya - ya
I – ZI ya - zi
KU kwa - kwa
PAKUMU pa – pa , kwa – kwa, mwa - mwa
Mkato wa Maneno
Huhusu nomino pamoja na vimilikishi vyote vitatu
Mifano
Baba + yake = babake
Dada + yake =n dadake
Nyanya + yenu = nyanyenu
Shangazi + yake = shangaziye
Kaka + yako = kakako
Mjomba + yake = mjombake
Viulizi
Maneno yanayotumiwa kuuliza maswali
Mifano
- Nani: hutumika katika ngeli ya A – WA kujua cheo, jina , ukoo wa watu
- Nini: kujua ni kitu cha aina gani
Hutumika katika ngeli zote isipokuwa ya A - WA - Gani:kujua aina , jamii, hali au tabia
- Lini: kiulizi cha siku au wakati
Hutumiwa kutaka kujua kipindi, siku au wakati wa tukio - Wapi:ni kiulizi cha mahali
- Vipi:kiulizi cha namna gani
Je ni neno la kuanzisha swali - Ngapi:kuuliza idadi kamili ya vitu , vyombo katika jumla
- Pi: kubainisha kati ya nyingi ili kupata kihusika au mhusika Fulani mahususi
Vielezi
Neno linaloeleza jinsi kitendo kilivyotendeka au kufafanua zaidi kuhusu kitendo
Aina za vielezi
- Wakati
- Namna
- Jinsi
- Mahali
- Idadi
- Vuhusishi
- Tanakali
- Takriri
- Tashbihi
Hutumika kwa - Lini- wakati
- Wapi – mahali
- Vipi – jinsi au namna
- Kiasi gani- idadi
Mifano
Wakati mahali namna
Leo nyumbani taratibu
Kesho darasani harakaharaka
Juma ijayo Nairobi ghafla
Mtondogoo machoni kivivu
Vielezi vya Mkazo
Takriri au shadda ni maneno yanayotumiwa kutilia mkazo au kusisitiza jambo
mifano ya takriri
- salama salimini
- bure bilashi
- raha na buraha
- kufa kupona
- liwalo liwe
- haambiliki hasemezeki
- fanya juu chini
- si wa uji si wa maji
- daima dawamu
- buheri wa afya
- hakubali hakatai
- hawashi hazimi
Ngeli pamoja Na Kirejeshi Amba
amba ni kitenzi kisaidizi kinachorejelea mtendwa au mtendaji kwa kutambulisha ama kueleza zaidi ya jambo fulani
kirejeshi –o hutumika badala ya AMBA
o-rejeshi na AMBA havitumiki pamoja
mfano
Kuku ambaye alitaga ni mkubwa
Nomino | Ngeli | Amba- | o-rejeshi |
Kuku |
A-WA |
Ambaye-ambao |
Ye-o Cho-vyo Lo-yo O-yo Yo-zo O-zo Yo-yo O-oO -yo Yo -yo Ko Po Ko MO |
Kirejeshi –amba
Kirejeshi –o cha awali na kirejessho o- cha tamati
Kufafanua jinsi ya kuambisha o rejeshi tamati na awali
o-rejeshi awali hutokea kabla ya mzizi wa kitenzi –o- rejeshi tamati hutokea mwishoni mwa sentensi
Kitenzi | o-rejeshi awali | o- rejeshi tamati |
Kimbia Kula Kuwa Kua |
Anayekimbia Anayekula Anayekuwa Anayekua |
Akimbiaye Alaye Awaye Akuwaye |
Matumizi ya –ndi
Kiainishi –ndi ni kishirikishi cha kukubali kwa msisitizo
Huambatanishwa na viwakilishi nafsi au virejeshi ili kutilia mkazo
Hutumia o-rejeshi kwenye vitenzi
Nafsi
Ndi + mimi = ndimi
Ndi + wewe = ndiwe
Ndi + yeye = ndiye
Ndi + si = ndisi
Ndi + nyinyi = ndinyi
Ndi + wao = ndio
o- rejeshi
ndi + ye = ndiye
ndi + o = ndio
Matumizi ya –si
Ni kiainishi cha kutilia mkazo
Huambatanishwa na viwakilishi nafsi au virejeshi ili kuleta msisitizo wa kukanusha
Nafsi
Si + mimi = simi
Si + wewe = siwe
Si + yeye = siye
Si + sisi = sisie
Si + wao = sio
o- Rejeshi
A –WA si + yeye = siye si + o = sio
KI – VI si + cho = sicho si+ vyo = sivyo
Matumizi ‘na’
Kiunganishi NA huambatanishwa na kiwakilishi nafsi kuonyesha PIA NA PAMOJA NA
Hutumiwa pamoja na 0-rejeshi
Nafsi
Ngeli Na + o- rejeshi
A – WA na+ye = naye nao
KI –VI na + cho = nacho navyo
LI –YA na + lo = nalo nayo
U – I na + o = nao nayo
U – ZI na + o = nao nazo
I – I na+ yo = nayo nayo
U – U na + o = nao nao
U – YA na + o= nao nayo
YA – YA na +yo = nayo nayo
I – ZI na + yo = nayo nazo
KU na + ko = nako
PAKUMU na+po na+ko na+mo
Matumizi ya ‘katika’, ‘ni’ , ‘kwenye’
Hivi ni vihusishi vya mahali
Hutumiwa kuonyesha kuwapo kwa kitu kilichotajwa mahali Fulani
Ngeli hubadilika hadi PA KU MU
Kuhimiza kuwa ni kosa kutumia hivi vihusishi pamoja
Kuambatanisha nomino na vivumishi
Vivumishi | Darasa | darasani |
Viashiria Vimilikishi Ote Oote Enyewe Enye Ingine Sifa |
Hili, hilo, lile Langu, lako,lake Lote Lolote Lenyewe Lenye Jingine Zuri, jema, baya Eupe, eusi Halina |
Hapa, hapo, pale |
Usemi Halisi na Taarifa
Usemi halisi ni maneno yalivyotarajiwa na msemaji mwenyewe
Usemi taarifa ni ripoti au maelezo yakitolewa na mtu mwengine kutoka kwa msemaji halisi
Kueleza jinsi ya kubadilisha usemi
Usemi halisi usemi taarifa
leo siku hiyo
Jana siku iliyopita/tangulia
Kesho siku ijayo
Viashiria hapa hapo au pale
Vimilikishi vya karibu ake
Mbali kidogo ako
Nafsi ya kwanza ni nafsi ya tatu
Wakati ta, ki nge
Mnyambuliko wa vitenzi
Kunyambua ni kurefusha mwisho wa vitenzi katika hali tofauti
- Tendeka
- Tendesha
- Tendeshwa
Katika kauli ya kutendeka vitenzi humalizika kwa ‘ka’
Kitenzi kauli ya kutendeka
Vuka vukika
Sahau sahaulika
Maliza malizika
Bomoa bomoka
Kula kulika
Lala lalika
Lima limika
Pika pikika
Soma someka
Fagia fagilika
Kitenzi tendesha kauli ya kutendeshwa
Lala laza lazwa
Pika pikisha pikishwa
Kimbia kimbiza kimbizwa
Rudi rudisha rudishwa
Toa toza tozwa
Ota otesha oteshwa
Oa oza ozwa
Soma somesha someshwa
Ukubwa na Udogo
Maneno katika hali ya ukubwa huwa ni kukipa kitu ukubwa usio wa kawaida na pia maneno katika hali ya udogo ni kukidunisha kitu kuliko hali ya kawaida
Ngeli pia hubadilika katika hali ya ukubwa na kuwa LI- YA ,na katika hali ya udogo huwa KI – VI
Njia tofauti za kubadili maneno katika ukubwa na udogo
Kudodosha – mw, ny na kutia j
Mfano
- ng’ombe – gombe
- Mkono – kono
- Ndama – dama
Kudodosha herufi moja na kutia ji
Mfano
- Mji – jiji
Kudodosha ki na kutia ji
Mfano
- Kisu – jisu
Kuongeza ji bila kudodoa chochote
Mfano
- Jicho – jijicho
Kutia j kwa nomino zinazoanza kwa irabu
Mfano
- uso – juso
- Uta – juta
Insha - Class 8 Kiswahili Revision Notes
- Insha za Methali
- Insha ya Mjadala
- Insha ya Masimulizi
- Kumbukumbu
- Insha ya Mazungumzo
- Insha ya Maelezo au Wasifu
- Insha ya Hotuba
- Barua Rasmi
- Barua ya Kirafiki ama Kindugu
- Dawa za Kulevya
Insha za Methali
Hutahiniwa kwa namna tatu
Mwanzo, mada na tamati au kijalizio
Iwapo ni mada,jadili au fafanua ikiwa una uwezo
Iwapo ni tamati, jalizia kwa maneno uliyopewa
Iwapo ni mwanzo, endeleza kisa moja kwa moja
Simulia kisa kinachooana na maudhui
Methali za wema, Usaidizi wa Rafiki na Udugu
- Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
- Heri jirani wa karibu kuliko ndugu wa mbali
- Kwendako mema hurudi mema
- Wema hauozi
- Jaza ya ihsani ni ihsani
- Kumpoa mwenzio sio kutupa
- Wawili si mmoja
- Damu ni mzito kuliko maji
- Damu ni damu si kitarasa
- Zimwi likujualo halikuli likakwisha
MsamiatI na Mapambo
- Saidia na kama
- Maiti na jeneza
- Kiko na digali
- Sahani na kawa
- Kinu na mchi
- Alinitilia upendo/alinipiga jeki
- Hali mbaya ya mtu
- Mchafu kama kilihafu/fungo/kisafu
- Dovuo mdomoni/mashavuni
- Ngecha menoni/matongo machoni
- Hali ya umaskini/unyonge/ugonjwa
- Si lolote si chochote
- Masikini hohehahe
- Si wa koleo si wa mani
- Kwake hakufuki moshi
- Si hayati si mamati/si hai si mahututi
- Hawana be wala te
- Nikawa gofu la mtu/kifefe/fremu ya mtu
- Anachungulia kaburi
Miundo ya maumbo
- Ilikuwa dhahiri shahiri kuwa angeenda jongomeo
- Nilipiga moyo konde nikampiga jeki Kwa hali na mali
- Alinitilia upendo kwani akufaaye Kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
- Nilikumbuka alivyonipakatana kuniasa
- Nilikuwa sina be wala te baada ya wazazi kwenda jongomeo
- Matumaini yangu yalifufuka pindi nilipokutana na _______________
- Machozi yalimlengalenga na kumbubujika kama maji mferejini
Kupokea methali
- Waambao waliamba _____________
- Wahenga hawakutupa ulimi wa kulazia walipoanga ______________
- Chambilecho wahenga ______________
- Wahenga hawakutoa ngebe walipokuli ________________
- Yakini, wema ____________________
Tamati
- Ndipo iliponiwia bayana kuwa ______________
- Ndipo walipofutika mtimani kwangu ukweli wa methali _______________
- Sitalifuta tukio hilo katika kumbukumbu zangu
- Tanbihi-mwalimu ana uhuru wa kuongeza mengine
Methali za Kutohadaika
Chanzo cha matatizo
Alipovunja ungo/baleghe
Alipovuka kizingiti cha lango la shule, chuo kikuu ___________ maisha yake yaliingia ufa
Alopowachagua marafiki vichwa maji/nyamafu _______________
Alianza kujipalia makaa kama chachandu pweza
Mambo yalianza kumwendea tenge/shote/shoro/mvange/msobe msobe/upogoupogo
Kufilisika – hana be wala te , hana kazi wala bazi/hana hanani, fukara fukarike
Kushikwa – kuhaha na kugwaya, kutweta na kuhema, pumzi juu juu
Alitamani dunia ipasuke na kummeza mzima mzima
Kamasi ilimtonatona puani kama matone ya mvua
Alinaswa/tiwa vituku/pingu/lishwa kalenda
Aibu – shikwa na haya/soni
Iva uso
Vunja uso
Kichwa kifuani kama kondoo
Teseka – alikula mumbi/mavi/kwata
Alifunzwa na ulimwengu usiokuwa na huruma
Kitumbua kiliingia mchanga
Alitekwa bakunja/pubazwa na
Urembo/fedha/sura/jamali
Vipokezi vya methali
Yakini ________________
Taibu __________________
Ama kweli __________________
Chambilecho wahenga ________________________
Wahenga na wahenguzi ______________________
Nakubaliana na wazee wa kale _______________________
Utekaji nyara
Mapambo
Uzuri wa siku/mtu – siku ilikucha vizuri/upepo mwanana
Umande ulimeremeta metumetu kama nyota angani
Ndege walikorokocha na kughani lahani nzuri
Nwele zake za nyufa., kiuno cha nyigu, meno ya mchele, pangika kama lulu
Sauti nyororo kama ya ninga/mwewe/kinanda/hurulaini wa peponi
Mwendo wa dalji/twiga wa savanna
Kutosikia nasaha
Juhudi zangu za kumwonya/kumnasihi ______________________
Ziligonga mwaba/paramia mwamba/ambulia pang’anda/tupwa kapuni
Udekezaji – alimwengaenga/alimlea kwa tunu na tamasha
Kumwasa motto kulikuwa jambo tukizi/nadra/dimu
Akawa haskii la mwadhini wala la mteka maji msikitini
Akatia maskio komango/nta/pamba
Kuwa sikio la kufa lisilosikia dawa/cha kuvunja ambacho hakina rubani
Methali Zinazoonya Kuhusu Tamaa na Uzuri wa Nje
Tamaa
Hamu kubwa ya kupata kitu, jambo, au hali Fulani
Visawe – uchu, ashiki, shauku, hamu, ari, nia, hanjamu, nyege, ukware, ghaidhi,
raghba
Methali za tamaa
Tamaa mbele mauti nyuma
Mkamia maji hayanywi, akiyanywa humsakama koo
Mwenye pupa hadiriki kula tamu
Mpanda farasi wawili hupasuka msaba/mwaranda
njia mbili zilimshinda fisi
Mwangata mbili moja humponyoka
Mchovya asli hachovyi mara moja
Mtaka yote huksa yote
Usiache mbachao kwa msala upitiapo
Methali za uzuri wa nje
Uzuri wa mkakasi ndanikipande cha mti
Sihadaike na rangi tamu ya chai ni sukari
Nyumba nzuri si mlango, ingia ndani
Kikulacho ki nguoni mwako
Ibilisi wa mtu ni mtu
Uzuri wa kuya ndani mabuu
Vyote viowevu si maji
Maudhui
Marafiki hadaa – ndumakuwili/mzandiki
Kutoaminiana katika ndoa
Ahadi za uongo – mchezo wa karata
Urembo ambao ni handaa
Insha ya Mjadala
Mjadala ni mazungumzo baina ya watu kuhusu mada au hoja kuu upande mmoja hupinga huku mwingine ukiunga mkono
Huhusu mazungumzo juu ya mada Fulani
Mfano:
- Maisha ya mashambani ni bora kuliko y mjini
- Teknolojia ina madhara mengi kuliko faida
Huhitaji mtahiniwa kuunga mkono hoja moja na kasha kuipinga katika aya inayofuata au kuunga mkono na baadaye kuzipinga hoja zake.
Kuna sehemu nne kuu
- mada
- utangulizi
- mwili
- tamati-kutoa kauli na ushauri
Mada huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa kulingana na swali
Utangulizi huhusu kufafanua mada na kutolea mifano
Mwili huhitaji kufafanuliwa kwa hoja
Kila hoja iwe katika aya yake
Hitimisho mtahiniwa huhitajikakutoa changamoto au ushauri
Kuna namna tatu za kuandika insha hii
- kuunga na kupinga katika aya moja
- kuunga mada mkono na baadaye kuipinga
- kuipinga mada na baadaye kuiunga mkono
Usiandike chini ya hoja sita
Toa msimamo wako kwa mwandishi
Insha hizi hutumia viunganishi vya kuongezea
- Licha ya
- Aidha
- Fauka ya
- Zaidi ya
- Pia
TEKNOLOJIA
Ni maarifa ya kisayansi yaliyowekwa katika matumizi ya vifaa, vyombo, mitambo na zana mbalimbali.
Teknolojia inaweza kutumika kwa njia ainati
- Mawasiliano
- Utafiti wa kisayansi
- Usafi na afya ya mwili
- Usafiri
- Kilimo na ufugaji
- Michezo na mashindano
- Elimu
- Biashara
- Kutalii anga za juu
Mawasiliano
Vyombo vya mawasiliano kama tarakilishi, magazeti, simu
- Hutupasha habari
- Hutuepusha na maafa
- Kuelimisha na kutumbuiza Kiingiacho mjini si haramu Kipya kinyemi kingawa kidonda
Utafiti
Wataalamu wamevumbua/wamegundua dawa za dwele
Mashine/mitambona vyombo vya kurahisisha kazi
Mitambo ya kuchunguza hali ya anga
Dawa za kuzuia mimba
Ukiona vyaelea vimeundwa
Elimu
Vyombo na vifaa vingi hutumiwa shuleni
Mitambo na vifaa vya utafiti
Matumizi ya mitandao
Kanda za video
Elimu ni bahari
Elimu haitekeki
Usalama
Zana za vita hutumiwa hutulinda dhidi ya maadui
Donge nono hupatikana baada ya kuuza vifaa
Nyua za umeme na ving’ora
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
Kilimo na ufugaji
Pembejeo-mbegu, mbolea, dawa
Mashine za kulimia, kunyunyuzia maji
Mashine za kukama ng’ombe
Ukiona vyaelea vimeundwa
Tembe na tembe huwa mkate
Usafiri
Vyombo vya usafiri vya majini, angani na nchi kavu
Huenda kwa kasi ya umeme
Huokoa wakati
Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
Madhara ya teknolojia
- Huwafanya watu kuwa wazembe Chanzo cha mmomonyoko wa maadili
- Hufundisha ulevi, ulanguzi wa dawa za kulevya
- Hulemaza akili na fikira
- Huchangia kutupilia mbali kwa tamaduni na desturi
Tamati
- Ningependa kuwajuza kuwa ______________________
- Ningeomba sote tupinge kwa jino na ukucha _______________________
- Tusiwe kama chachandu kwa kujipalia makaa kwa ___________________________
Insha ya Masimulizi
Michezo
Michezo ni jumla ya shughuli za kujifurahisha, kujichangamsha,kujiburudisha au kupoteza wakati
Kuna michezo ainati kama vile
- Kandanda
- Mpira wa vikapu
- Voliboli
- Naga
- Magongo
- Riadha
- Sarakasi/viroja
Riadha
Ni jumla ya michezo ya viungo vya mwili kama kukimbia, kuruka
Kuna mbio za masafa
- Mafupi-mita 100, 200, 400
- Kadiri-mita 800, 1500, 3000
- Marefu-5000, 10,000, na mbio za nyika
- Kuruka viunzi na maji
- Kutupa tufe/kijisahani
- Kubururana kwa kamba
Msamiati
- Tufe
- Mzingo
- Nusu mzingo
- Vijiti
- Safu za kukimbilia
- Wapasua hewa
Kandanda/kambumbu/soka /gozi/mpira wa miguu
- Hushirikisha timu mbili
- Mavazi ya wachezaji-jezi, kaptura, soksi
- Viatu vya wachezaji-ndaruga, njumu
- Uwanja wa michezo unaitwa uga/uchanjaa
- Golikipa-mlinda lango/ mdakaji/mnyakati
- Wachezaji wa ngome-walinzi/defense
- Wachezaji wa kiungo
- Kipindi cha lala salama/cha pili
- Kadi ya manjano/nyekundu
- Mshindi/mshinde
- Mchuano/kinyang’anyiro/kindumbwendumbwe
Mapambo na maumbo
- Uwanja/uga/uchanjaa ulijaa/ulifurika
- Jiwe lisingeanguka ardhini
- Shangwe, vifijo, vigelegele na nderemo vilihinikiza hewani
- Ngome yao ilikuwa dhabiti mithili ya ukuta uliojengwa kwa zege
- Wapasua hewa walihema na kutweta
- Mithili ya mbwa aliyenusurika kumezwa na chatu
- Kikorombwe cha mwisho kilipopulizwa
- Alipiga zinga kimo
- Cha mbuzi hadi ______________
- Nilimvisha kanzu/kupiga tobwe
- Mpira ulianza kwa kasi ya umeme
- Mpira uludanadana wavuni
Methali
- Hayawi hayawi huwa
- Hauchi hauchi unakucha
- Kutangulia si kufika
- Subira huvuta heri
Mada
- KINYANG’ANYIRO CHA KUKATA NA SHOKA
- MECHI YA KUSISIMUA
- KIPUTA CHA KIPEKEE
- MECHI YA KUKUMBUKWA
Mikasa
Mikasa ni matukio au mambo ya kutisha yanayotokea kwa ghafal pasi ya kutarajiwa
Matukio haya yanaweza kuleta maafa, masaibu na majonzi
Mikasa hii inaweza kuwa ya moto, milipuko ya bomu, zilizala, mafuriko, ajali barabarani, mlipuko wa volkano na maporomoko ya ardhi
Yanayopaswa kuzingatiwa kwa masimulizi ni
- Wakati wa mkasa
- Mahali pa tukio
- Jinsi tukio lilivyotokea
- Kushiriki kwa msimulizi
- Shughuli za uokozi
Msamiati na mapambo
Kelele-mayowe, kamsa, usiahi
Mlipuko-mfyatuko, mwatuko, mshindo, ngurumo
Vilio-shake, kusinana, kikweukweu, kwikwikwi, mayowr
Mochari-makafani, ufuoni,
Ving’ora vya ambulensi na makarandinga
Vifusi na majivu katika majengo
Manusura na majeruhi
Huduma ya dharura
Vukuto la moto
Helikopta za kijeshi na shirika la msalaba mwekundu
Mabehewa(mabogi) yalitapakaa
Gari liliyumba yumba/lilipiga danadana
Taharuki na hekaheka
Kuuputa moto kwa matagaa
Cheche za moto zilitanda kama fataki
Paparazi walizuka/walitokea ghafla bin vu kama mizuka
Upepo ulivuma kwa ghamidha na ghadhabu
Waja walipiga mbizi ili kujinusuru
Gari liligeuzwa likawa ganda tu
Ngeu ilitapakaa na kuzagaa kote
Mizigo ilfyatuka na kuwalenga wapiti njia
Ving’ora vilihinikiza/vilitanda/vilishamiri kote
Mavundevunde ya moshi yalitanda kote
Joto lilisambaa na kuzagaa
Vilikuwa vilio si vilio, majonzi si majonzi, zogo si zogo
Methali
- Chelewa chelewa utampata mwana si wako
- Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
- Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
- Mbiu ya mgambo ikilia kuna jambo
- Umoja ni nguvu utengano ni udhaifu
- Juhudi si pato
Vihisishi vya majuto na mshangao
La haula la kwata !
Yarabi maskini!
Ole wangu!
Masaalale!
Lo!
Uasidizi
Walitupiga jeki
Niliwatilia upendo
Niliwapa mkono
Tulisaidiana kama kiko na digali
Maiti na jeneza
Kinu na mchi
Tamati
Hakika, hakuna msiba usiokuwa na mwenziwe
Daima dawamu sitalisahautukio hilo
Matukio hayo hayatafutika kutoka tafakulini mwangu
Ninapokumbuka kisa hicho, machozi hunitiririka njia mbilimbili
Huzuni
Insha humhitaji kuelezea kisa kinachoonyesha huzuni na woga
Insha nyingi huhusu mikasa au masaibu kwa watu
Visawe vya mikasa ni balaa, janga , balaa, baa, visanga
Mikasa yote hutokea kama ajali
- Zilizala
- Ajali barabarani au angani
- Mlipuko wa bomu
- Ukame
- Maporomoko ya ardhi
- Moto Ugaidi
Yanayozingatiwa mahali pa mkasa
- Jinsi tukio lilivyotukia
- Kushiriki kwako
- Uchunguzi na matokeo
Tanbihi : mahali pa tukio – hotelini , mwituni, ofisini, kituo cha mafuta, kiwandani,
shuleni, dukakuu, barabarani, ufuoni mwa bahari, chumba cha maabara
Mapambo
Mlipuko – mfyatuko, mwatuko, mngurumo,
Ulikuwa mlipuko wa kuatua moyo/mtima, kushtua, kuogofya, kutisha
Ulikuwa mlipuko wa jiko la gesi/umeme/gari/bomba la mafuta
Kelele: usiahi, unyonge, kamsa, ukwezi, mayowe, ukwenje
Vilio vya –kusinasina, cha shake, kikweukweu kwikwikwi
Iwapo ni bomu, moto, ajali ya ndege
Moto ulirindima na kutatarisha majengo
Mabiwi/mashungi ya moto
Mavunde/mawingu ya moshi yalitanda kote
Vukuto la moto liliongezeka badala ya upepo kuvuma kwa hasira/ghamidha/hamaki/ghadhabu
Nilijitoma ndani ya nyumba kuwanusuru
Nahodha hodari haogopi moto
Kwa muda wa bana banua sehemu ile ikawa kama tanuri/joko/jehanamu
Jingo hilo liligeuzwa na kuwa majivu
Moto/nari ilifakamia majengo kama nzige wavamiavyo shamba la mihigo
Muda si muda, muda kiduchu, kutia na kutoa, fumbo fumbua,bana banua, kuku
kumeza
Punje paka kunawia mate, punda kunawia mavumbi,
Wengine walichomeka kiasi cha kutotambulika
Vilio vilinywea na sauti kuwapwelea
Tulipirikana na kupitana katika juhudi/hekaheka/pilikapilika za kuuputa moto
kuwaokoa wahasiriwa
Huzuni
Mikasa kwa jumla
Milio ya ving’ora vya makaradinga ya polisi, ambulensi, magari ya zima moto _____ tanda/tamalaki/tawala anga
Manusura/mahututi/majeruhi walipelekwa hospitalini/zahanatini
Walipewa hudum ya kwanza/ya dharura
Wafu walipelekwa mochari/ufuoni/makafari
Paparazi walizuka kama mizuka na kupeperusha picha sawia na matukio
Wanahabari walitangaza matukio ya mkasa redioni/runingani/magazetini
Wengine walisali/walipiga dua zisizoeleweka
Kwa nyota ya jaha/bahati ya mtende/kwa sudi wasamaria wema msalaba mwekundu wanajeshi zimamoto wakasaidia kuokoa
Basi lilipiga danadana na kuanguka bondeni ziwani/baharini
Tulifanya wanguwangu/himahima/chapu chapu/yosa yosa/ hala hala/mwendo wa arubili
Bila shaka tukio hilo halitafutika moyoni/sitalisahau daima dawamu
Niltamani ardi inimeze mzima mzima
Nilitamani kulia nikacheka nikalia
Machozi yaligoma
Methali
Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
Chelewa chelewa utampata mwana si wako
Fimbo ya mbali haiui nyoka
Heri jirani wa karibu kuliko ndugu wa mbali
Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
Mbiu ya mgambo ikilia kuna jambo
Mja hakatai wito hukataa aitiwalo
Ajali haina kinga wala kafara
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
Nahodha hodari haogopi moto
Furaha
Furaha inaweza kutokana na matukio mbalimbali kama vile
- Sherehe –harusi
- Siku ya kuzaliwa
- Mahafali
- Siku kuu ya krismasi
- Kwenda ughaibuni
- Matokeo mazuri ya mtihani
Mada
Siku ya siku
Akidi ya kufana
Sherehe ya kukata na shoka
Siku ya ndovu kumla mwanawe
Shamrashamra za
Msamiati na mapambo
Maua ya kila nui/ainati – asmini ,mawaridi afu, nangisi
Ukumbi wa mahema , jumba kubwa ,uwanja
Vipasa sauti/mikrofoni –vilihinikiza /sheheni
Muziki wa kuongoa ongoa ulitamalaki katika anga
Vyakula – mapochopocho/maakuli yaliyotishia kuangusha meza
Vinywaji vya kila jamii yalipenyeza kisirisiri
Mkalimani/mtarijumani alitafsiri haya yote
Kiume – mtanashati
Kike – mlibwede, spoti , mrembo kama mbega
Binti alikuwa mrembo mithili ya hurulaini aliyeasi/toka peponi
Alitembea kwa mwendo wa dalji/mwendo wa twiga wa savanna
Mwanaume mrefu njorinjori /mrefu kama unju/weusi kama kaniki
Udohoudoho , chipsi, bisi, kripsi
Waja walisakata rumba/dansi/tibwirika kwa miondoko
Msafara /mlolongo wa mashangingi
Walikula kiapo/yamini/vishana pete huku shangwe
Walipigana pambaja
Pofushwa na vimulimuli vya wapiga picha
Waja walijaa furifuri
Ilikuwa dhahiri shahiri kuwa ningefua dafu
Nilidamka wanguwangu kwa kuubwaga mgolole wangu na kuanza hamsini zangu
Kuche kusiche hatimaye kulikucha
Amka bukrata kichea
Niliamka asubuhi ya Mungu
Waja walisalimiana kwa furaha na farahani
Furaha sufufu ilinitinga si kidogo
Vyakula vya kunoga na kuhomolewa viliandaliwa na wapishi wajuzi
Vicheko vilipamba moto jari moja
Watu walichangamka na kukaramka kwa bashasha
Nilivalia meli zangu mpya zilizometameta kama mbalamwezi
Utamu wa malaji ungemfanya mtu kuramba viwiko vya mkono
Methali
Hauchi hauchi huwa
Hayawi hayawi huwa
Siku njema huonekana asubuhi
Baada ya dhiki, faraja
Mtu ni watu
Mgaagaa na upwa hali wali mkavu
Tashbihi
Shirikiana kama kinu na mchi, kiko na digali, soksi na kiatu
Lazima kama ibada
Kawaida kama sharia
Bidii kama mchwa ajengaye kichuguu/kishirazi/kidurusi
Bidii za msumeno ukerezao mbao
Bidii ni duduvule agatoye gogo la mti
Kumbukumbu
Kumbukumbu ni taarifa au rekodi zilizoandikwa na kuhifadhiwa
Anayeandika ni katibu au karani
Kiongozi wa mkutano huwa mwenyekiti au naibu wa mwenyekiti
Kumbukumbu ni maoni ya wote;hivyo basi katibu hafai kutoa hisia zake mwenyewe
Sehemu muhimu za kumbukumbu ni
- Mada/kichwa
- Mahudhurio
- Ajenda za mikutano
- Thibitisho
Mada/kichwa
- Huwa na jina rasmi linalotambulisha shirika, kundi, kampuni
- Huwa na tarehe, mahali na wakati(saa)
- Kichwa kindikwe kwa herufi kubwa na kupigiwa mstari
Mfano
KUMBUKUMBU ZA MKUTANO WA CHAMA CHA MAZINGIRA WA TAREHE 2 MEI 2010 KATIKA
UKUMBI WA HOTELI YA MAJIMBO SAA MBILI ASUBUHI
Mahudhurio
- Huonyesha majina ya waliohudhuria, waliokosa kuhudhuria na waliotuma udhuru(sababu) ya kutohudhuria
- Huonyesha walioalikwa
- Majina ya wanajopo/wanakamati/wanachama yafuate vyeo
- Baadhi ya vyeo ni kama vile
- Mwenyekiti au naibu mwenye kiti
- Karani au naibu/katibu
- Katibu mwandamizi/mratibu
- Mhazini-anayetunza mali ya shirika au kampuni
Ajenda
- Hizi ni hoja muhimu zinazojadiliwa k.v kufunguliwa kwa mkutano
- Kusomwa kwa kumbukumbu za mkutano uliotangulia
- Hoja nyinginezo zitategemea nia ya mkutano au shirika
- Kufungwa kwa mkutano-taja anayeomba na wakati
Mapambo
- Mkutano ulifahamishwa kwamba _______________
- Ripoti ilitolewa kuwa ___________________
- Mwenyekiti aliwaarifu/aliwajuza kuwa _____________________
- Mkutano uliamua kwamba ___________________
- Walipatana kwamba __________________
- Kikao kilielezwa kuwa ____________________
Thibitisho
Sehemu hii huwa na sahihi na tarehe
Baada ya kumbukumbu kusomwa na kuthibitishwa katika mkutano unaofuata mwenyekiti na katibu hutia sahihi
Umbo la kumbukumbu
Mada:herufi kubwa
Waliohudhuria
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
Waliotuma udhuru
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
Wasiotuma udhuru
_____________________
_____________________
Waalikwa
_____________________
_____________________
Ajenda
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
KUMB CCM1 1/02:
KUMB CCM 2 1/02:
Thibitisha
Mwenyekiti ________________________ (sahihi)
Tarehe ___________________________
Katibu ____________________________(sahihi)
Tarehe ___________________________
Insha ya Mazungumzo
Mazungumzo ni maongezi mahojiano au malumbano baina ya mtu na mwingine au kundi moja na jingine
Mazungumzo haya yanaweza kuwa
Poroja/soga/domo-ni mazungumzo ya kupitisha wakati
Kutafuta ujumbe maalum-hufanyika kwa njia ya mahojiano
Kumdadisi au kumwelekeza mtu-baina ya mtu aliye na tajriba na Yule anayetaka msaada
- Kila mmoja hupewa nafasi ya kuzungumza
- Mhusika mmoja asichukue nafasi kubwa
- Tumia alama za uakifishaji ainati
- Sharti pawe na hali ya kuchachawiza
- Vitendo viweze kuandikwa katika alama za mabano
- Fani za lugha zitumuke ili kuleta uhondo katika mazungumzo
- Lazima pawe na maagano au maelewano
- Tangaza msimamo iwapo ni mahojiano
- Hatua
Mada/kichwa
Huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa na kupigiwa ,mstari
Mfano
MAZUNGUMZO BAINA YA DAKTARI NA MGONJWA
Maudhui-hili ni lengo au kusudi la mazungumzo
Msamiati utategemea lengo la mazungumzo
Vitendo na ishara-haya yataandikwa katika mabano mfano: (akiketi, akilia, wakibisha, akicheka)
Alama za uakifishaji
Koloni( : )huandikwa baada ya jina au cheo cha mtu
Alama za dukuduku ( -------------)kwamba mazungumzo yanaendelea
Parandesi au mabano ()
Kubana maneno ambayo hayatasemwa
Alama ya hisi ( ! ) hutumiwa pamoja na viingizi kuonyesha hisia
Mfano: yarabi maskini!
Insha ya Maelezo au Wasifu
Hii ni insha inayotoa maelezokuhusu jambo, mahali au kitu Fulani
- Insha hii hueleza, huarifu, huburudisha au hutahadharisha
- Mwandishi asiandike chini ya hoja sita
- Tumia viunganishi unapounganisha mawazo katika aya au unapoaanza aya nyingine
- Tiririsha mawazo ili pawena mtiririko na mshikamano
- Katika tamati toa ushauri kwa makundi mbalimbali
- Mwandishi anaweza kutoa msimamo wake kuhusu hoja Fulani
FAIDA ZA ELIMU
- Elimu ni taaluma au mfuo wa mafunzo yanayofundishwa katika jamii zetu
- Elimu inazo faida anuwai
- Elimu huondoa ujinga akilini
- Mja hupata maarifa, ujuzi na hekima
- Mwanafunzi hutambua mambo tofauti
- Humakinika katika mambo ayafanyayo
- Elimu ni bahari na pia habari
- Aliyeelimika huweza kuishi na wengine
- Mtu hujiheshimu na kuheshimu wengine
- Husaidia kudumisha amani, umoja na upendo baina ya watu
- Kichango kuchangizana
- Umoja ni nguvu utengano ni udhaifu
- Ni daraja la kutuvusha katika umaskini
- Waja hutia bidii za mchwa ili kufaulu maishani
- Humwezesha mtu kuhitimu katika taaluma Fulani
- Uhawinde hutokomea kama umande nyasini wakati wa jua la asubuhi
- Hurahisisha mawasiliano Baina ya mtu mmoja na mwingine au baina ya mataifa
- Hujifunza mengi kwani kuishi kwingi kuona mengi
- Aliyesoma hutalii nchi nyingi
- Kuhifadhi siri
Elimu humwezesha mja kusoma uumbe kutoka katika barua au arafa akiwa pekee - Huchangia kuwepo kwa maendeleo
- Serikali hujenga shule,vyuo na miundo msingi mingineyo ya elimu
- Taasisi mbalimbali huboresha mitaala ya ufundishaji
- Hufanikisha utafiti, utumiaji wa teknolpjia mpya na mitambo mbalimbali
Elimu ni irithi
Elimu ni mali ambayo haiteki
Ni almasi inayostahili kuchibwa na mtoto yeyote mwandilifu
Zamani watu waliridhi mashamba na mifugo
Elimu ni silaha na nguzo muhimu na madhubuti
Methali
Elimu ni bahari
Elimu ni taa, gizani huzagaa
Elimu ni ali ambayo adui hawezi kuiteka
Elimu maisha si vitabu
Viunganishi na mapambo
Isitoshe, elimu ni ,ali ambayo adui hawezi _____________________
Zaidi ya hayo, humwezesha mja kuhitimu _____________________
Hata hivyo, kuna wale wanaoitumia __________________________
Aidha, limu hurahisisha mawasilia ___________________________
Nahau
Tujifunge masombo/nira/kibwebwe ili ________________________
Tujikaze kisabuni _________________________
Tusiwe pweza wa kujipalia makaa kwa kutoelimika _________________________
Tujifunge masombo mithili ya _____________________ duduvule atoboaye gogo/mchwa ajengaye kichuguu
Tamati
Ningependa kukunja jamvi kwa ____________________________
Ninapofikia tamati
Jua linapoaga mikalatusi
Ninatia kitone nikitoa lulu kuwa
Barua Rasmi
Pia huitwa barua ya kiofisi
Huandikwa kuhusu jambo rasmi
Huandikwa ili
- Kuomba nafasi ya kazi
- Kuomba nafasi za masomo shuleni au chuoni
- Maombi ya msaada kutoka kwa serikali
- Kuomba msamaha au radhi
- Malalamishi kuhusu jambo Fulani
Barua rasmi ina sehemu zufuatazo
- Anwani
- Anwani mbili – ya mwandishi na ya mwandikiwa
- Anwani ya mwandishi huandikwa tarehe
- Kianzio
Sehemu hii huandikwa bwana (BW) au bibi (BI), Mkurugenzi mkuuu, mwalimu mkuu
Mtajo
Ni kichwa cha barua ambacho huashiria lengo au madhumuni kwa ufupi
Kumbukumbu – KUMB
Mintarafu – MINT
Kusudi – KUS
Kuhusu – KUH
Yahusu – YAH
Kichwa cha barua rasmi hupigiwa mstari - Mwili
Huelezea zaidi kuhusu kusudi ya barua na lengo hasa kuandika barua
Mtahiniwa huhitajika kuelezea kuhusu Elimu yake
Wasifukwani haambatanishi stakabadhi zozote zile
Tanbihi
Insha yoyote ile lazima itimize ukurasa na nusu - Tamati/mwisho
Humalizwa kwa
Wako mwaminifu
Sahihi
Jina
Mtindo wa barua rasmi
SHULE YA MSINGI
YA LIZAR,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA,
NOVEMBA 18, 2015.
MWALIMU MKUU,
SHULE YA UPILI YA ALLIANCE,
S.L.P 2003,
KIKUYU.
Kwa Bwana/Bi – kianzo
mtajo-MINT: NAFASI YA KUJIUNGA NA KIDATO CHA KWANZA
mwili
hitimisho –
wako mwaminifu
Msamiati
Nina furaha kukuandikia __________________
Ninasikitika ninapokuandikia waraka _________________
Ningependa kuchukua fursa hii _____________
Kwa mujibu wa ilani ______________________ katika gazeti, runinga, mabango
Shule yako imetajwa na kutajika katika _________________ michezo, elimu, bidhaa bora
Shirika/kampuni imeipa kipaombela swala la _____________________
Nina nidhamu na taadhima ya hali ya juu
Vyeti vyangu pamoja na wasifu vimeambatanishwa na waraka
Nitakuwa kielelezo dhabiti kwa wenzangu
Nina talanta katika fani ya riadha _____________________
Ni matumaini yangu kuwa utaupokea waraka huu ________________________________
Barua Ya Kirafiki ama Kindugu
Huhusu kupatiana mwaliko, kujuliana hali, kufahamisha au kuarifu kuhusu jambo
Sehemu muhimu za barua hii ni
- Anwani ya mwandishi
Huandikwa pembeni kabisa upande wa kulia sehemu ya juu
Huwa na jina la mwandishi , mahali anakoishi, sanduku laposta na tarehe
Kianzio
Hudhihirisha Yule anayeandikiwa
Hubainisha uhusiano wake na mwandishi
Mfano
- Kwa mpendwa
- Kwa mwanangu mpendwa
- Kwa mpenzi wangu
- Kwa sahibu/muhibu
- Utangulizi
Haya ni maamkizi kwa yule anayeandikiwa
Mfano- Pokea salamu – sufufu, furifuri, tolatola nyingi kama nyota angani, mchanga
- Mimi ni bugeri wa afya
- Mzima kama chuma cha pua / ngarange za mvule
- Nina buraha na furaha/furaha na bashasha
- Nina imana kuwa Mola/Mkawini/Jalali
- Nina matumaini kama tai kuwa u buheri wa afya/siha/zihi.rai
- Methali
- Ama kweli/yakini/waama
- Waraka ni nusu ya kuonana
- Afya ni bora kuliko mali
- Mwili
Sehemu – hii hubeba ujumbe wa mwandishi
Wema – ninaomba unitendee fadhila/jamala
Ninashukuru kwa wema ulionitendea
Utiifu – ninakuhakikishia kwamba nitakuwa na utiifu, nidhamu na bidii
Lengo au azma ya kukuandikia waraka huu ni
Waraka huu ni kukujulisha kuwa
Ningependa kukujuza kuwa - Tamati
Ningependa kutia nanga kwa kukuelezea kuwa _______________
Kwa kuwa wasaa umenitia kumbu/muda
Umenipa kisogo, ningependa kutia kitone
Ninakunja jamvi kwa msemo usemao _______________________
Kalamu yangu inalilia wino ____________________
Ndimi mzazi wako ____________________
Wako wa moyoni _____________________________
ni wako mpendwa ______________________
Ndimi mwana wako mpendwa
Sampuli
BIDII FAULU,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA.
18-11-2015
Kwa sahibu yangu, fundi msanifu ,
Utangulizi ______________________________
Mwili
Hatima
Ni mimi wako,
Jina la mwandishi
Insha ya Hotuba
Hotuba ni maelezo yanayotolewa ili kupitisha ujumbe Fulani
Anayetoa hotuba huitwa katibu
Umati unaosikiliza huitwa hadhira
Huanza kwa mlahaka/salamu kwa kutambua vyeo kuanzia wa juu mpaka wa chini ,
sababu ya mkutano
Alama za kunukuu hutumiwa
Hotuba inaweza kuwa ya
- Mwanafunzi akihutubia shuleni
- Mwalimu
- Mwalimu mkuu wa wazazi shuleni
- Daktari au afisa wa afya
- Rais wakati wa maadhimisho ya mashujaa
- Waziri wa usala, afya na ugatuzi
Mfano wa utangulizi
“mgeni wa heshima, mkuu wa elimu gatuzini, mkaguzi wa elimu, mwenyekiti na
maafisa wa elimu na wanafunzi, hamjambo?
‘Mwalimu mkuu, naibu wa mwalimu mkuu, walimu wenzangu, viranja na wanafunzi,
sabalkheri?
Mapambo
ninazo bashasha/furaha/buraha
Nimesimama kidete/tisti/imara kama chuma
Cha pua/ngarange za mvule/kiini cha mpingo
Nitawandondolea hoja zangukuanzia utando hadi ukoko,shinani hadi kileleni
Rejelea hadhira mara kwa mara – nanyi, enyi wazazi, nasi wanafunzi
Tamati
Ningependa kutia kitone/nanga/kukunja jamvi kwa msemo usemao
Ninawamiminia shukrani tolatola/fokofoko
Kwa kutulia kama maji mtungini/maziwa kitomani
Kwa kuwa lililo na mwanzo halina budi kuwa na mwisho
Ninawatakia Baraka njema za Mualana/ninawatakia mbawazi za mkawini mbingu
Dawa za Kulevya
Ni kitu chochote kinachoathiri fahamu za mwili na afya ya mja
Mifano
- Kokeini
- Mandraksi
- Bangi
- Ganja
- Miraa au mirungi
- Tumbako
Athari za dawa za kulevya
- Kuvuruga akili
- Mtumiaji hugeuka na kuwa mkia wa mbuzi/juha/kalulu
- Kupata ujasira bandia
- Mja huwa katili
- Hujiingiza katika visanga kama wizi
- Hudhuru afya
- Mhasiriwa kama ng’onda/kimbaumbau mwiko wa pilau
- Sura huumbuka na kusawijika
- Husababisha saratani
- Kuenea kwa magonjwa ya zinaa
Methali
Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
utovu wa nidhamu
watumiaji husheheni matusi
hutabawali kadamnasi
kuvalia mavazi mafupi
Methali
mwacha mila ni mtumwa
usiache mbachao kwa msala upitao
kuzorota kwa uchumi
mtu binafsi hutumia njenje zote
watoto hawatimiziwi mahitaji
filisha mja- akabaki hana mbele wala nyuma
uchumi wa nchi huzorotabaada ya kutumia pesa kuwatibu wahasiriwa
husababisha uraibu
huleta wizi
husababisha uzembe
madereva kusababisha ajali
kupata magonjwa
Making Work Easier - Class 8 Science Revision Notes
Inclined Planes.
These are tools that make work easier by increasing the effort distance.
Examples of inclined planes.
- Screw
- Screw driver.
- A road winding up a hill.
- Ladder.
- Staircase, escalators, ramps.
- Wedge
Single Fixed Pulley.
These are simple tools that make work easier by changing the direction of the force.
They are used to lift or raise load on higher surfaces.
A rope or string is put along the groove. The groove prevents the rope from slipping off.
Properties of a single fixed pulley.
- Makes work easier by changing the direction of the force.
- The effort distance and the load distance are equal.
- The effort force and load force move in opposite direction.
- The effort force and load force are equal
Uses of pulleys
- Hoisting the flag.
- To load or offload cargo at the ports.
- Used in cranes
Energy - class 8 science revision notes
Energy Transformation.
The law of energy conservation statesthat, energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed to other forms of energy.
Forms of energy | Sources |
Potential energy (stored) | Possessed by objects at rest. Found in fuels, dammed, water, elastic rubber. |
Kinetic energy (motion) | Possessed by moving objects. Found in running water, wind, moving stone, moving car etc. |
Chemical energy | Found in chemicals, fuels, food, car battery, dry cells, candlewax and all fuels |
Heat energy | Main source is sun. Other sources include; friction, burning fuels, electricity and food. |
Light energy | Main source is sun. Other sources include; stars, electricity, lamps et |
Magnet energy | Found in magnets, loadstones and electromagnet |
Sound Energy | Produced when objects vibrates. Sources include; pianos, guitas, drums etc |
Mechanical energy | Produced as a result of potential energy and kinetic energy. Examples include; rotating turbines, hammer stricking a gong, between a bicycle and road |
Elastic potential | Found in streched rubber band or compressed spring. |
Energy Conservation.
Energy conservation means protecting, preserving, restoring and managing energy resources.
Ways of Conserving of Energy.
- Using energy sparingly by:
- Switching bulbs off when not needed.
- Using public transport instead of private vehicle.
- Using bicycles or walking for short distance.
- Using vehicles with low fuel consumption.
- Using thermosflask and hot pots to keep food hot.
- Using energy saving bulbs.
- Using energy efficient devices.
- Modern jiko/improvised jiko
- Clay cookers.
- Using renewable forms of energy.
Renewable forms of energy refers to forms that are inexhaustible like wind, water, sunlight, food, biogas and forests.
Non-renewable sources of energy are those that can get exhausted when use like petrol, diesel, kerosene, natural gas
Advantages of Renewable Energy.
- Are cheap.
- Do not pollute the environment.
- Help to conserve non renewable forms of energy.
- Readily available and in abundance.
Food and Nutrition - class 8 science revision notes
Nutritional Requirements For Special Groups
Nutritional Needs For A Pregnant Or Expectant Mother
- Should be rich in proteins for proper growth of baby.
- Should have carbohydratesfor properfunctioning of baby's organs and providing the mother with enough energy.
- Should be rich in vitamin D and calcium for strong bones and teeth of the baby and formation of blood cells.
- Should be rich in irons for healthy blood of the mother and foetus
- Should have fibres to improve the mother's digeston and prevention of constipation
- Should have plenty of fluids for good production of milk and maintenance of properlevel of amniotic fluid.
Nutritional Needs of Lactating Or Breastfeeding Mother.
- Should be rich in irons to replace the blood lost during birth.
- Should be rich in calcium, magnesium and phosphorus for recovery and strengthening of teeth and bones.
- Should have vitamins to protect the mother against infection.
Nutritional Needs of Infants
Infants are children below 2years.
The best food for them is breast milk as it is wholesome ie it contains all the nutrients required by the body.
Advantages of breast milk
- It is wholesome.
- It has colostrum that gives natural immunity.
- It is readily available in the right form and right temperature.
- It is free from diseases.
- It does not cause allergies.
- It is easy to digest.
- It strengthens mother-child bond.
Advantages of bottle feeding.
- Convenient when the mother has little or no milk.
- Someone else can feed the baby when the motheris away.
- Children born to HIV/AIDS mother cannot be infected through bottled milk.
Disadvantages of bottle feeding.
- Might lack some nutrients.
- Lacks colostrum.
- Not readily available.
- Children might develop allergies.
- Should have extra fluids for production of milk.
Weaning.
This is the gradual introduction of semi solids foods to an infant. It is done at the age of 4-6months. Breast feeding should continue upto 2 years. Introduce one food item at a time.
Food Poisoning.
This is an illness of the stomach caused by eating foods containing harmful substances.
Agents of food poisoning.
- Micro-organism.
- Chemicals.
Symptoms of food poisoning.
- Violent vomiting.
- Severe headache.
- Diarrhoea.
- Fever.
- Feeling weak and dizzy.
- Severe abdominal pain.
- Nausea
- Muscle paralysis.
- Constipation.
Methods of prevention food poisoning.
- Proper storage of food to avoid contamination.
- Proper preservation of food.
- Propersanitation and disposal of garbage.
- Hygienic handling of food.
- Proper cooking of food.
- Thourough washing of hands before handling food.
- Avoid buying damaged fruits and canned foods.
- Proper washing of utensils and dishes used for food
Environment - class 8 science revision notes
- The Meaning and Major Components of Environment
- The Meaning and Effects of Soil Pollution.
- Air Pollution
The Meaning and Major Components of Environment
Environment describes all the things and conditions that make up our surroundings on earth.
The major natural components of environment consist of living things and non-living things i.e. Water, Soil, Air, Plants and Animals
Water
Water is a very important component of the environment in that all living things depend on water. Water forms part of the environment for fish as fish get oxygen from the water and feed on water plants or some other fish found in the water. All other living things that live in water get oxygen from the water.
Other water sources found in the environment is a dependent for other living things on the land e.g. animals get water from rivers, lakes, rain and dams. People also use rain water for domestic purposes. They harvest the water using tanks and drums. They also
fetch water from rivers and wells.
Without water plants can not grow well. We already know that the conditions necessary for germination are: water, air and warmth. During photosynthesis, plants use water to make their own food.
Soil
Another important component of environment is soil which makes the homes of some small animals. Plants get nutrients from the soil so as they can grow well, get water from the soil through absorption and are finally held by the soil. Also soil is important to
animals in that they feed on plants that grow on the soil e.g. zebra, cows and goats. They are called herbivorous because they feed on green plants and vegetable materials that grow on the soil. Human beings cultivate the soil to produce food crops that they eat.
Many small animals live in the soil like ants, termites, moles, groundhogs and some bacteria which decompose dead plant and animal materials.
Air
One of the major components of the environment is air which all living things cannot survive without. We already know that air is a composition of many gases; oxygen which makes 21% of the air is needed for respiration.
Note that living things breath in oxygen and those animals that live in water get their oxygen from the dissolved oxygen in the water. Carbon dioxide in air is 0.03% which is used by plants in making their own food in presence of sunlight, a process called
photosynthesis. These plants give out carbon dioxide. It is from the atmosphere where the plants and animals on the land get their oxygen and those in water get theirs in the water.
Animals take in oxygen through breathing and give out carbon dioxide. On the other hand plants take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and give out oxygen. Leguminous plants e.g. beans, ground nuts and peas use nitrogen which makes 78% part
of the air to make proteins.
Plants
Another major component of the environment is plants. Trees provide shelter for some animals such as monkeys and insects. Animals get their food from plants either directly or indirectly. Plants do also hold soil together thus preventing soil erosion.
Plants give out oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis and animals take in oxygen during breathing. Dead plants decay and decompose releasing nutrients to the soil making it fertile.
Animals
Some animals help in pollination such as bees and butterflies. They help in cross pollination of flowers in plants. Animals also help in seed dispersal. Waste matters from animals add nutrients to the plants and this way soil becomes fertile. Small animals like
bacteria decompose materials in the environment to release nutrients to the environment. Animal breath out carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which in turn is used by plants to make food.
The Meaning and Effects of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is the presence of substances that affect the quality of the soil also known as land pollution. It affects the usual use of soil and is dangerous to the health of human beings, other animals and plants. In other words, soil pollution means making soil impure. We say that when certain substances are present in the soil they pollute it. Substances that make soil or other components of the environment impure are called pollutants (contaminant). Some of examples of such pollutants are plastics, polythene papers, fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides.
NB: Pesticides kill pests while herbicides kill weeds.
If oil is spilled on the soil it pollutes it. The following are some causes of soil pollution:
- Domestic waste disposal improperly
- Improper disposal of raw industrial waste
- Excess use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticidesin the activities of poor agriculture
- Spilling oil on the soil
- Mining activities destroysthe soil structure and leave excessminerals on the top soil.
Effects of soil pollution
When soil is polluted, its fertility is affected and this too affects the soil productivity leading to the living components of the environment i.e. plants and animals getting affected as well.
Effects of soil pollution on plants
Dumping
Most materials such as plastics and polythene papers do not decay. If such materials are not properly dumped, they may cause damage to leaves and stems of plants when deposited on the soil as they decay. Through this way, they interfere with growth of the plants as follows:
- Absorption of water and mineral salts.
- Growth of roots of the plants since they block the roots.
- Air circulation in the soil.
Negative Effects of Soil Pollution on Animals.
Soil being homes of many small animals, such as worms, ants and termites, they are negative affected when soil is affected (polluted). Some small animals like bacteria make soil to be rich by decomposing dead vegetable and animal materials. Thisis the way humus is added into the soil making it more productive. Other small animals like earthworms and millipedes dig in the soil and this allows air and water circulation in the soil. The improved soil aeration and drainage of the soil allows the roots of the plants to penetrate into the soil easily.
The presence of oil, chemicals in the soil such as herbicides and pesticides and other harmful pollutants make it difficult for the small animals to survive and when they die the soil losesits quality and lowers productivity.
NB: Small animals in the soil improve soil air aeration and drainage.
Methods of Soil Conservation.
Animals and plants depend on soil. Plants grow on the soil while animals feed on the plants hence they need to conserve soil. To conserve soil means to protect it from losing its natural properties and productivity. There are various methods of conserving soil. This section briefly discusses these methods.
Table 3.1: Summary of the main methods used in soil conservation
Methods used in soil Conservation
Soil conservation methods | |
Controlled use of agricutural chemicals | Planting trees |
Ensruring proper disposal of waste | Afforestation |
Avoid burning vegetable cover | Contour farming |
Mulching | Building gabions |
planting ground cover | Proper stock ing or controlled grazing |
Terracing |
- Control use of agricultural chemicals
Agricultural chemicals include the following: fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. If used uncontrollably they can lead to soil pollution and even water pollution. Their use can also be harmful to crops and those who consume the crop which include animals and human beings.
Farmers should strictly follow the manufacturer’s instructions while using the agricultural chemicals. The instructions which come with agricultural chemicals clearly advise on the following:- Type of the chemical to use.
- Purpose of the chemical.
- Direction of usei.e. the amount to use and mode of application.
- Precautionary measures to observe.
- Ensuring proper disposal of waste
A lot of waste is produced by domestic and industries. Both wastes can be harmful or useful. So that soil is not polluted by these wastes it is important to have good ways of disposing them. This is called waste management.- Domestic Waste
Domestic waste means the garbage people discard from their homes. This may be of organic refuse or inorganic refuse.
Organic refuse: This refers to those that can rot and includes food remains, vegetables, and fruit peelings.
Inorganic refuse: This does not rot and some may take long time to decay.
Examples of such are plastics, broken glasses, metal parts and cans. Domestic
waste should not be dumped on the soil surface.
Methods of disposing domestic waste
Converting waste into compost manure
A compost pit should be dug at home for all garbage that can rot e.g. food leftovers. This can be made into compost manure
Using local authority service
Waste in urban areasis deposited into the garbage bins provided by the local authorities who arrange for its collection and thereafter proper disposal.
Table 3.2:common methods of waste disposal
Method Description Incinerator this is burning the inorganic refuse at very high temperatures in a machine Recycling This is the most effective method. It involve collecting waste e.g. papers, plastics, broken glasses and food cans, treating them with chemicals and reusing them to make more of the same products Depositing in pit latrines Inorganic waste should be thrown into a pit latrine or buried deep in the soil. Also it can be burnt in an improvised incinerator as shown below. Reusing Reusing means using an item more then once or for a different function from the one it was meant for at the beginning. Many such as cooking fat and oils, honey and jam are packed in reusable jars and cans. These can be used at home to store other products e.g. salt, sugar or small foods. Honey jars can be used as drinking glasses. - Industrial Waste
A lot of waste is produced in the industries. Such wastes include oil, contaminated acids and metal waste. Water is contaminated with chemicals, waste rubbers and waste papers. Some of these chemicals are not only hazardous to the soil but to the living component sin the environment.
Method Description On-site treatment This is where waste is treated harmless at an industry at the point where it is produced. This in turn reduces the danger of polluting the environment during the transportation process to the point where it is appropriate to be disposed. Reusing Some industries use some products more than once or for different function from the initially meant for e.g. commercial industries, the solvent they use such as petrol to dry clean garments is not thrown away but filtered and reused. Recycling Companies that make bottles do not throw broken bottles away but recycle them to make new ones. There are other companies that buy waste paper and recycle them to make tissues e.g. toilet rolls, facial tissues and serviettes. Waste Exchange Programme One industry may produce waste that can or may be needed by another industry for its raw materials. This can be considered as useful waste. To explain this lets look at furniture manufacturer where the saw dust is produced and wood shaving as waste products. These can be used by a company that manufactures papers. Treating hazardous waste This is where the new methods are used to treat hazardous waste to make them non-hazardous. Harmful pollutants are destroyed so that they do not pose any danger to the environment. Substituting
raw materialsThis is the process where the raw materials that produce harmful wastes are replaced with other that produces less harmful waste. Changing Manufacturing process A process or stage which produces waste during the manufacturing process may be changed or eliminated so that the waste is no longer produced. Incineration This is the process of burning waste using machines such as incerators and furnaces. Reducing its generation This is the best method of reducing waste. It involves simply preventing waste generation. Government regulations In this, government has put in place laws to control the disposal of waste. Such control aims at preventing illegal dumping of harmful waste.
- Domestic Waste
- Avoid burning vegetable cover
When we want to clearland for farming, we should slash or uproot the unwanted vegetations but not burning them. This is because cleared vegetation left to rot increase humus and adds nutrients to the soil.
NB: Vegetation cover guards soil against exposure to the agents of soil erosion.
When we burn vegetation, we kill the living organisms in the soil and no humus goes into the soil. Vegetation cover also prevents soil from agents of soil erosion such as wind, water and animals. - Mulching
This is covering the soil with dead plant materials such as dry grass and leaves. This prevents excessloss of water from the soil through evaporation. This also reduces splash erosion. The mulch decays afterwards and adds humus to the soil. - Planting ground cover
It is advisable to plant ground coversince land should not be left bear. Ground cover may include ground cover crops that spread out overthe soil surface and cover it. Examples of such cover crops include grass and sweet potatoes. These crops or plants hold the soil firmly with their roots helping or preventing the soil from being carried away by agents of soil erosion such as wind and rain. Cover crops also trap soil as water flows through the garden thus conserving soil. - Terracing
Terraces dug along the contours on the slopes reduce the speed of run-off water. This reduces soil erosion and this way soil is conserved. - Planting trees
Planting of trees can be either afforestation or re-afforestation. - Afforestation
This is planting of trees in areas where none has been planted. - Re-afforestation
This is planting trees where forests have been cleared. Trees are important in preserving soil:
- Reduce wind erosion by breaking the wind
- The roots hold soil particlesfirmly together. This helps the soil from being carried away by agents of soil erosion.
- They provide shade thus reducing the amount of water evaporation.
- They reduce the speed of running water. This reduces the strength of water to erode the soil.
- The leaves fall off and decompose thus increasing the amount of humus in the soil.
- Contour farming
In this crops are planted along the contours on ridges. This helps reduce soil erosion thus conserving the soil. - Building gabions
As already known, gulley erosion where running waterforms V or U - shaped channels. These gullies can be blocked by building structures called gabions across them. Gabions are heavy boxes made of wire mesh that are filled with stones. As water flows through the gabion, soil is trapped thus reducing soil erosion and repairs the soil structure. - Proper stocking or controlled grazing
Farmers should keep livestock that a piece of land can hold. This is called proper stocking which leads to soil conservation. When animals overgraze they uproot the vegetable cover e.g. grass. This way the soil becomes exposed to agents of soil erosion such as wind and water.
Air Pollution
Air is an important component of the environment. Pure air is a mixture of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.97% rare gases, water vapour, and dust particles. Presence of harmful substances in the air is called air pollution. The substances are called pollutants. Pollutants endanger human health and also affect other living components in the environment i.e. plants and animals. Others which arte indirectly affected by air pollution are water and soil.
Major causes of air of Pollution
- Tobacco smoking
This is one of the major forms of air pollution. It is normally smoked as cigarettes. In addiction to nicotine and tar, tobacco contains carbon monoxide as well which is a highly poisonous gas as it interferes with the ability of the blood to transport oxygen to the body organs. Smoke from cigarettes does not only affect the active smoker but also the passive smokeri.e. any one who inhales the cigarette smoke (polluted air) unintentionally. - Burning tyres and plastic materials
The combustion of tyres and plastic materials produces harmful emissions and poisonous gases and especially when they do not completely burn. Incomplete combustion produces gases such as carbon monoxide which poses threat to humans health and to the survival of animals and plants. Similarly, carbon dioxide is a product of incomplete combustion. As we already know the normal carbon dioxide in the air is 0.03% excess carbon dioxide in the air as pollutant. Other pollutants from combustion are tiny particles of smoke and soot.
Rubber and plastics when burnt produces black sooty flame and emits smoke that makes the air smoggy and also emits a foul smell. Charcoal burning is also a threatto the environment - Emission of Gases from Vehicle Exhaust
Vehicles use fuels like petrol and diesel to run. The combustion of these fuels in the engine of the vehicles produces harmful gases e.g. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other gases. These gases produced by vehicles contain poisonous gases then contribute to pollution of the air. Exhaust gases from vehicles thus contribute to pollution of air and especially in cities and big towns where traffic is heavy.
Another harmful substance that may be contained in burning fuels is lead which is dangerousto human health. - Spraying Farm Chemicals
Agricultural or otherwise farm chemicals include the following: Herbicides, Acaricides and Pesticides
Farm chemicals are dissolved in water and sprayed to either crops or animals using a sprayer. As spraying farm chemical is done, wind blows some of the chemicals thus polluting the air. The person spraying the chemicals should take the following precaution measures to avoid inhaling the chemicals:
- Wearing protective clothessuch as gas mask, gloves and protective coats.
- Spraying in the same direction the wind is blowing to and not against the wind.
- Aerosol sprays
These are packed in cans or other containersfrom which liquid is forced out in form of a fine mist. The perfume or pesticide is dissolved in solvent which remains in the atmosphere after spraying and pollutes it. The solvent may contain harmful chemical substances which interfere with the ozone layer.
NB: Ozone is a gasin the upper part of the atmosphere. It forms a protective blanket known as the ozone layer which protects the earth from harmful rays from the sun. Harmful gases result in tuning of the ozone layer. When this is depleted, the survival of human being, animals and plants is at a threat. - Industrial Waste Gases
Most industries release waste gases into the air which may be harmful. Some of these industries produce excess carbon dioxide which can pollute the air. Some otherindustries produce a gas called sulphur dioxide which is also harmful. Other industries too produce dust and small particles which are harmful. These waste industrial gases must be treated so that they are made safe.
Effects of Air Pollution on Living Things and Non-Living Things
Polluted air is a threat to human, animals and plant life. Also it is dangerous to nonliving components of the environment e.g. water and soil. It corrodes materials such as corrugated iron sheets and marble.
-
Effects of air pollution on living things
- Effects of air pollution on plants
In order to grow healthy, plants need clean air. Polluted air affects plants in the following ways:- Leaves are covered with dust particle and thus blocking the sunlight and so affecting photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their own food. Soot and dust block the stomata this may affects plants.
- Some waste gases such as sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form acidic solutions which damage leaves of plants. Presence of these gases in the air could also lead to formation of acid rain which make the soil to be acidic thus affecting the availability of nutrients to plants. High acidity on the soil may interfere with the survival of organisms that are very important to plants growth. When absorbed through roots, acid rain interferes with proper development of plant and it may wither and die. When deposited in water sources like pond, lakes and oceans, water plants that feed on water animals are affected.
- Effects of air pollution on animals
Air pollution is a threat to humans, domestic and wild animals through the following ways:- Causes respiratory problems. When animals inhale dust and other harmful gases, they can develop respiratory such as coughing and sneezing which may result to respiratory diseases.
- May cause allergies resulting in coughing, sneezing, irritation of eyes and breathing problems.
- When acid rain gets deposited into water sources like lakes, ponds, and oceans, water animals e.g. fish are affected.
- Effects of air pollution on plants
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Effects of air pollution on non living things
- Sulphur and carbon dioxide are among gases that cause air pollution when dissolved in the rain water. They form acid rain which corrodes metals such as corrugated iron sheets and stones like marble.
- Acid rain causes weathering of rocks.
- The view of environment is also destroyed by smoke and smog which are a mixture of gas particles.
- Smog destroys materials made of rubber too.
- Dust particles soil our clothes and settle on surface of tables, window sills and furniture thus making then dirty.
Ways of Controlling Air Pollution
Air pollution is controlled in several ways: These include;
- Avoiding smoking cigarettes
- NOT burning tyres and plastic materials
Table 3.4: Air Pollution Control Measures
Measure | Description |
Avoid smoking cigarettes | In an effort to control air pollution banning of cigarette smoking in public places e.g. hospitals, schools, and in public transport vehicles has been done. These areas have been declared smoking free zones and billboards displaying the ban in these areas have been erected. |
NOT burning tyres and plastic materials | Polythene papers and tyres plus other plastics should be recycled or buried deep in the soil. They should not be burnt |