A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A complete thought is clear. A sentence always begins with a capital letter. It ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples:
The two fundamental parts of every English sentence are the subject and the predicate. A subject can be described as the component that performs the action described by the predicate. It tells who or what does or did the action. It may also name the topic.
The predicate tells about the subject. It tells what the subject does or is.
Examples:
Subject Predicate
(Who or what) (What is said about the subject)
The antelope jumped over the high fence.
Pigs eat anything is sight when hungry.
In a sentence, a few key words are more important than the rest. These key words make the basic framework of the sentence. The verb and its subject are the key words that form the basic framework of every sentence. The rest of the sentence is built around them.
Examples:
Sentence Key words
The young kids jumped playfully. kids, jumped
Their faces shone brightly. faces, shone
To find out the subject, ask who or what before the verb.
Examples:
To find out the verb, ask what after the subject.
Examples:
The key word in the subject of a sentence is called the simple subject. For example, kids, faces. The complete subject is the simple subject plus any words that modify or describe it. For example, The young kids, Their faces.
The key word in the predicate is called the simple predicate. For example, jumped, shone. The complete predicate is the verb plus any words that modify or complete the verb’s meaning. For example, jumped playfully, shone brightly.
The simple subjects and predicates may sometimes be more than one word. For simple subjects, it may be the name of a person or a place.
Examples:
The simple predicate may also be more than one word. There may be a main verb and
a helping verb.
An object in a sentence is a word or words that complete the meaning of a sentence. It is involved in the action but does not carry it out. The object is the person or thing affected by the action described in the verb. It is always a noun or a pronoun and it always comes after the verb.
Example:
Some verbs complete the meaning of sentences without the help of other words. The action that they describe is complete.
Examples:
Some other verbs do not express a complete meaning by themselves. They need to combine with other words to complete the meaning of a sentence.
Examples:
In the above examples, the snake, goggles and the door are the objects as they are the things being affected by the verbs in the sentences.
Some sentences do not take objects or adverbs (or adverbial phrases) after the verbs. Instead, they take complements. A complement is the part of the sentence that gives more information about the subject (subject complement) or about the object (object complement) of the sentence.
Subject complements normally follow certain verbs like be, seem, look, etc.
Examples:
Object complements follow the direct objects of the verb and give more information
about those direct objects.
Examples:
The complement often consists of an adjective (e.g. red) or a noun phrase (e.g. an idiot) but can also be a participle phrase.
Example:
I saw her standing there. (standing there is a complement telling more about her).
Objects come in two types, direct and indirect:
The direct object is the word that receives the action of a verb.
Examples:
Sometimes the direct object tells the result of an action.
Examples:
To find the direct object first find the verb. Then ask whom or what after the verb.
Examples:
Remember, we said earlier that a verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb and a verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive verb. We also said that a verb may be intransitive in one sentence and transitive in another. Other verbs are strictly intransitive like disagree.
The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object. They tell us for whom or to whom something is done. Others tell to what or for what something is done.
Examples:
I gave him the book.
He is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the book.
Direct object or adverb?
Direct objects are sometimes confused with adverbs. The direct object tells what or whom as we have seen earlier. Adverbs on the other hand tell how, where, when or to what extent. They modify the verbs.
Examples:
Brian Swam slowly. (slowly is an adverb telling how)
Brian Swam a tough race. (race is a direct object telling what).
Verbs can also be followed by a phrase that tells how, when, or where. This kind of a phrase is never a direct object but an adverbial phrase.
Example:
Brian swam across the pool. (a cross the pool tells where Brian Swam).
Therefore, to decide whether a word or a phrase is a direct object or adverb, decide first what it tells about the verb. If it tells how, where, when or to what extent, it is an adverb. If it tells what or whom, it is a direct object
The preparatory It is used to show opinion or condition (especially concerning time, distance, and weather). The preparatory It acts as a dummy subject and is usually followed by the verb be (or a modal + be). The logical subject in sentences beginning with It is often a to-infinitive phrase or a noun clause.
The preparatory There often begins sentences that show location or existence, especially when the existence of something or someone is mentioned for the first time. It is usually followed by the verb be (or a modal + be).
Phrases are groups of related words that can include either a subject or a tensed verb.
Prepositional phrases have a preposition and an object of the preposition.
Gerund phrases have a gerund and can function the same way as a noun. They often appear as the object of a preposition.
Infinitive phrases have an infinitive and can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
Participial phrases have a participle and function as an adjective. They are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Clauses are groups of related words that include both a subject and a tensed verb
Independent clauses can stand alone as a sentence. Two independent clauses are often connected with a coordinating conjunction.
Dependent clauses cannot stand alone as a sentence. They need an independent clause to form a complete sentence. When a dependent clause begins a sentence, a comma is used to separate it from the independent clause.
Simple sentences have just one independent clause.
Compound sentences have more than one independent clause.
Complex sentences have one independent and one dependent clause.
Compound-complex sentences have more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Before the plane took off, Sarah called her dad to say good-bye, but he didn’t answer the phone.
I like this class; though early in the morning, it’s very interesting.
Direct speech is used to give a speaker’s exact words. It is also referred to as direct quotation.
Direct speech is always enclosed within quotation marks.
Examples:
A comma always separates the quoted words from the speaker’s name, whether the name comes before or after the quotation
Examples:
A direct quotation always begins with a capital letter
Example:
When a direct quotation is divided by speech tags, the second part of the quotation must begin with a small letter.
Example:
If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the forst kword of this sentence is capitalized.
Example:
Commas and full stops are placed inside quotation marks
Example:
Quotation marks and exclamation marks are placed inside a quotation mark if they belong to the quotation. If they do not, they are placed outside the quotation.
Examples:
Speech tags may appear before, in the middle or at the direct speech.
Examples:
Indirect speech is used to refer to a person’s words without quoting him or her exactly. It is also referred to as indirect quotation or reported speech. The original spoken words are not repeated.
The exact meaning is given without repeating the speaker’s words.
Example:
Direct speech: The governor said, “Creating new jobs will be my first priority”
Indirect speech: The governor said that creating new jobs would be his first priority.
Several changes do occur when changing a sentence from direct to indirect speech
Sometimes the verb in indirect speech does not change tense. This occurs in sentences that are universal truths
Direct: Our Geography teacher said “The earth rotates round the sun”
Indirect: Our Geography teacher said that the earth rotates round the sun
Words referring to place also change
Examples:
Direct: “I live here,” retorted the old man.
Indirect: The old man retorted that he lived there
Direct: “This place stinks,” noted the boy.
Indirect: The boy noted that that place stunk.
Words referring to time also change
Examples:
Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” he shouted.
Indirect: He shouted that he would visit me the following/next day
Direct : “ He died last year,” the policeman reported.
Indirect: The policeman reported that he had dies the previous year/ the year before.
Demonstrative pronouns also change:
Examples:
Direct: “This book is mine,” Jane claimed.
Indirect: Jane claimed that that book was hers.
Direct: “These are hard times,” observed the president.
Indirect: The president observed that those were hard times.
Pronouns also change when rewriting a sentence from direct to indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct: “My car is better than yours,” the teacher bragged.
Indirect: The teacher bragged that his/her car was better that his/hers/theirs.
A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words. Like prepositions, conjunctions show a relationship between the words they connect. But, unlike prepositions, conjunctions do not have objects.
There are 3 main categories of conjunctions;
Coordinating conjunctions connect related words, groups of words, or sentences. There are three coordinating conjunctions: and, but and or. And is used to join words, groups of words, or sentences together. But shows contrast while or shows choice.
Examples:
Subordinating conjunctions connect two or more clauses to form complex sentences. Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses. They include because, since, if, as, whether, and for.
Examples:
Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs to connect sentence parts. These include either ….. or, neither ….. nor, not only……. but also, whether ……. or and both …… and.
Examples:
An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. To describe or modify means to provide additional information about nouns or pronouns. To modify further means to change something slightly.
Writers and speakers modify an idea or image by choosing certain describing words, which are called adjectives. Hence, these adjectives are also called modifiers. Adjectives are like word cameras. They are words that describe colours, sizes and shapes. Adjectives help you capture how the world around you looks and feels.
These are adjectives which tell how many or how much. They give the number or the quantity, either specific or approximate, of the noun in question. They are also referred to as numerals
Examples:
More examples of numerals
Numbers | Amount | Approximate |
Three Ten Five Hundred Twenty |
Much All Some Any Few |
Several Some Little Many Few Each Every Numerous |
Adjectives that are in form of numbers are used with countable nouns:
Examples:
A definite or indefinite adjective may look like a pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence. It is an adjective used to modify a noun.
Adjectives that are in farm of quantity are used with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
To compare two people, places or things, we use the comparative form of an adjective. To compare more than two, we use the superlative form of the adjective.
Examples:
ONE PERSON: Kimenju is tall.
TWO PERSONS: Kimenju is taller than James.
THREE OR MORE: Kimenju is the tallest of all.
The comparative form of the adjective is used to compare one thing, person or place with another one. It is formed in two ways.
The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare a person, a place or a thing with more than one other of its kind.
Examples:
Transitive verbs require a direct object for their meaning to be complete.
Subject | Transitive Verb | Direct object | Meaning |
Jenny | erased. | incomplete | |
Jenny | earsed | the whiteboard. | complete |
Gary | told. | incomplete | |
Gary | told | a secret. | complete |
Intransitive verbs do NOT require a direct object for their meaning to be complete.
Subject | Intransitive Verb | Direct object | Adverbial | Meaning |
Wendy | slept. | complete | ||
Peter | ran | the whiteboard. | to school. | complete |
Some verbs can be transitive or intransitive depending on the context in the sentence
Subject | Verb | Direct object | Adverbial | Transitive/Intransitive |
Doug | moved | the sofa. | transitive | |
Doug | moved | to Singapore. | intransitive | |
Kelly | left | her bag | at home. | transitive |
Kelly | left | at three O'clock | intransitive |
Progressive verbs describe an action occurring over a period of time. They are formed with the verb be + the present participle (-ing form)
Subject | Be | Present Participle | |
I | am | reading | the newspaper. |
Angela | was | washing | the dishes. |
They | had been | running | a marathon. |
Non-progressive (Stative) verbs do not describe actions. Instead, they describe a state or condition. The state or condition can occur over a period of time. They are NOT formed with be + the present participle.
Subject | Stative Verb | ||
Diana | loves | Casey. | |
Pizza | tastes | good. | |
They | understand | Spanish. |
Common non-progressive (stative) verbs: appreciate, believe, dislike, exist, fear, hate, know, like, love, need, prefer, realize, resemble, seem, sound, understand
Many verbs can be progressive or non-progressive (stative) depending on the context of the sentence.
Subject | Verb | Progressive/ Stative | |
John | thinks | soccer is fun. | stative |
Kevin | is thinking | about soccer. | progressive |
Shelley | feels | sick. | stative |
Lisa | is feeling | the rabbit's fur. | progressive |
Common progressive and non-progressive verbs: appear, cost, feel, forget, have, hear, imagine, include, look, measure, remember, see, smell, taste, think, want, weigh
Phrasal verbs are verbs that combine with a preposition to create a meaning that is different from the two words taken separately. With some phrasal verbs, the object must be placed after the preposition.
Verb | Preposition | Meaning | ||
Sherri | came | across | someone's wallet on the street. | found by chance |
Did Craig | drop | by | his friend's house? | visit |
We didn't | get | on | thye bus. | enter (a vehicle) |
Other common non-separable phrasal verbs: check in, drop out (of), get along (with), get off, get in, grow up, look after, take after, run into.
With some phrasal verbs, the object can be placed between the verb and the preposition or after the preposition.
Verb | Object | Preposition | Meaning | |
Barney | figured | the answer | out. | found/understood |
Did she | pick | a candy | out? | choose |
He didn't | turn | his ipod | off. | stop |
Other common separable phrasal verbs: call off, cheer up, drop off, find out, give up, hand in, look up, make up, put off, take over, turn on, turn down
Note that not every verb + preposition is a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs are only those combinations that have a separate meaning.
Verb | Preposition | Phrasal verb/Not | ||
The ball | dropped | by | the big tree. | not |
We | dropped | by | the store for some milk | phrasal verb |
She | looked | into | a trip to Hawaii. | phrasal verb |
Charlie | looked | into | the fridge to see if there was any milk. | not |
The indicative mood is the most common verb mood in English. It is used to express facts and opinions, or to ask questions about them. The indicative mood is used in all verb tenses.
Indicative Conjugation (Simple Present) | I am going to visit Paris next week. You looked happy yesterday. My dog is barking at passing cars. Does she have my book? Do they study English on Tuesdays? |
|
I | am | |
walk | ||
He/ She/ It | is | |
walks | ||
You/ We/ They | are | |
walk |
The imperative mood is used to make requests or give orders and warnings. It is used only in the simple present and future tenses.
The subject in the imperative mood is always you. In simple present tense, the you-subject is not usually stated. | Pass me the salt, please. Don’t walk near my vegetable garden. Look out for those bees! |
In the simple future tense, the you-subject is usually stated. It is used to place stronger emphasis on a command. | Finish your homework tonight. (command) You will finish your homework tonight (strong command) |
The subjunctive mood is used to express uncertain actions or states.
The present subjunctive* is formed with the base form of a verb. It follows verbs, nouns, or adjectives that express suggestion, demand, or request.
Words of suggestion used: determine, determination, propose, recommend, recommendation, suggest, suggestion, advise, advisable, critical, desirable, important, vital, urge | The doctor suggested I sleep more. My recommendation is that he sleep more. The doctor’s recommendation is that they sleep more. It is advisable that she sleep more.** |
Words of demand used: demand, imperative, insist, necessary, order, require, required. | My parents demand that I be quiet at night. Your parents require that you be quiet at night. It is imperative that she not be noisy at night. |
Words of request used: ask, beg, prefer, request, wish | I ask that you have more patience with the other students. The teacher requested that Nick have his project finished a day earlier |
* The term “present” refers to the form of the subjunctive verb (base form) rather than the time in which the action happens. The following sentences all use the present subjunctive mood:
** Often, that is not omitted from sentences.
The subjunctive mood is also used to express uncertain actions or states.
The past subjunctive* is formed with the simple past form of a verb that describes a state, condition, or habit. With the verb be, the form were (not was) is always used. It refers to hypothetical or imaginary situations.
The past subjunctive is used after the verb wish to express an unfulfilled desire | I wish Sally were here to help us. He wishes he could run faster |
It is also used after the verbs suppose and imagine or with if (only) phrases to express unreal conditions. Such sentences are usually followed by would or could. | Suppose you met the president. What would you say? Imagine you were rich. What would you do first? If people drove smaller cars, we could all breathe cleaner air |
The past subjunctive is also used when a comparison to an imaginary condition is made. In this case, as though or as if usually precedes it | She acts as though she were very rich, but she’s not. He drives as if he were in a Formula 1 race. |
The time of an action or the state of being is expressed by different forms of the verb. These forms are called the tenses of the verb.
There are three main forms of a verb: the present, the past, or the future.
A verb which is in present tense indicates what the subject of the sentence is doing right now.
Example:
The teacher sees the students.
The verb sees tells that the teacher is seeing the students now. To show the present tense, an -s or -es is added to most verbs if the subject is singular.
If the subject is plural, or I or You, the -s, or -es is not added.
Example:
The bird hatches in the nest.
The stream flows down the hill.
The boys rush for their breakfast.
We talk a lot.
Rules for forming the Present Tense with Singular Subjects
A verb which is in past tense shows what has already happened.
Example:
Tito liked his grandmother’s story.
The verb liked tells that the action in the sentence happened before now.
Rules for forming the Past Tense
A verb which is in future tense tells what is going to happen.
Examples:
Evans will take his car to the garage.
She will probably come with us.
The verbs will take and will come tell us what is going to happen. Hence, they are in future tense.
To form the future tense of a verb, use the helping verb will or shall with the main verb.
The most common tenses of the verb are the simple tenses. You use them most often in your speaking and writing.
The perfect tenses are used to show that an action was completed or that a condition existed before a given time.
The perfect tenses are formed using has, have, or had before the past participles i.e.
verb forms ending in -ed.
Examples:
The progressive form of the verb shows continuing action.
Examples:
I am singing
She was dancing.
The progressive form is formed using various forms of the verb be plus the present participle i.e. a verb form that ends in -ing.
Examples:
A pronoun is a part of speech that takes the place of a noun. They include such words as I, we, he, she, thy, me and us.
Pronouns enable you to avoid repeating the same names (nouns), when writing or speaking, which would otherwise make you sound very awkward and wordy. By using pronouns effectively, you can make your writing and speaking flow smoothly.
Pronouns can be classified into 6 types. These are personal, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, reflexive and intensive pronouns.
A personal pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. They are used to refer to nouns that name persons or things.
Example:
In the above example, the personal pronoun his helps the writer avoid repeating the same noun. The pronoun he acts as a bridge to connect the two sentences.
Personal pronouns are further classified in terms of person and gender.
In terms of person, personal pronouns can be divided into three classes.
The personal pronoun it usually replaces a noun that stands for a thing or an animal. It is never used in place of a person.
Personal pronouns can also be classified by gender. Gender can either be masculine
(referring to male people), feminine (referring to female people) or neuter (referring to
animals or things).
Examples:
In English, personal pronouns have three forms: the subject form, the object form and the possessive form.
Examples:
A subject pronoun takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. These pronouns are:
Subject pronouns also appear after forms of the linking verbs be.
Examples:
Object pronouns can replace nouns used after action verbs. These pronouns are:
In the above examples, the personal pronouns are the direct or indirect objects of the verbs before them.
Object pronouns can also replace nouns after prepositions such as to, for, with, in, at or by. That is, they can be objects of prepositions.
Examples:
A possessive pronoun shows ownership.
Example: My pen is black.
There are two kinds of possessive pronouns:
A demonstrative pronoun is used to single or point out one or more persons or things referred to in the sentence.
These pronouns are this, that, these, and those.
This and these point to persons or things that are near.
Examples:
That and those point to persons or things that are farther away.
Examples:
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or thing.
In English, there are singular indefinite pronouns, plural indefinite and both singular and plural indefinite pronouns.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
another anything everybody neither one
anybody each everyone nobody somebody
anymore either everything no one someone.
An indefinite pronoun must agree with its verbs and in number with its possessive
pronoun. The above indefinite pronouns are used with singular verbs. They are also used
with singular possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Agreement with verbs
Correct: Everyone has heard of Lake Turkana.
Incorrect: Everyone have heard of Lake Turkana.
Correct: Nobody knows what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Incorrect: Nobody know what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Correct: Everything about the old man remains a mystery.
Incorrect: Everything about the old man remain a mystery.
Agreement in number with possessive pronouns
Correct: Neither believed his/her eyes.
Incorrect: Neither believed their eyes.
Correct: Each strained his/her neck to see.
Incorrect: Each strained their neck to see.
Plural indefinite pronouns
both many few several
These indefinite pronouns use plural verbs and possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Plural verbs
Correct: Few know about Lake Olbolsat.
Incorrect: Few knows about Lake Obolsat.
Correct: Both stand by what they believe.
Incorrect: Both stands by what they believe.
Plural possessive pronouns
Correct: Several reported their findings.
Incorrect: Several reported his/her findings.
Both singular and plural indefinite pronouns
all some any none
These indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural, depending on their meaning in the
sentence.
Examples:
All of my story is true – singular
All of the guests are here – plural
None of the lake is foggy – singular
None of the photos are spoiled – plural.
Reflexive and intensive pronouns end in -self or -selves. These are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, and themselves.
A reflexive pronoun refers to an action performed by the subject of the sentence. The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun.
Examples:
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what.
Examples:
Who is the mayor of this town?
Whose is the red car?
Which is her blouse?
What did she ask you?
Whom should I trust with my secret?
Who, whom, and whose are often used to ask questions. Hence, they are interrogative pronouns.
WHO is the subject form. It is used as the subject of a verb.
Examples:
Who taught you how to play the guitar? (Who is the subject of the verb taught.)
WHOM is the object form. It is used as the direct object of a verb or as the object of a preposition.
Examples:
Whom did you meet? (Whom is the object of the verb did meet).
For whom is this trophy? (whom is the object of the preposition for).
WHOSE is the possessive form. It can be used :
Nouns can be singular or plural.
SINGULAR: banana
PLURAL: bananas
Spelling Rules for Plural Nouns | ||
Noun Ending | Rule | Examples |
a consonant or a vowel (most regular nouns) | add -s | a bed→beds, a table→ tables |
-s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x | add -es | a bus →buses a match →matches a glass →glasses a fox → foxes a dish → dishes |
a consonant + y | change y to i and add -es | a dictionary → dictionaries |
-f or -fe | change -f/-fe to v and add -es | a leaf → leaves a knife → knives |
Vowels: a, e, i, o, u
Consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z
Nouns are words that represent people, places, things, or ideas.
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable.
Countable nouns represent things that can be counted as individuals. Use a, many, few, or numbers
Countable nouns: apple, ant, bag, book, cat, chair, donut, friend, house, jacket, map, neighbor, page, question, raft, stove
Uncountable nouns represent things that cannot be counted as individuals. Use much, little, some or any* (for negatives and questions) before uncountable nouns.
Uncountable nouns: bread, cheese, coffee, food, fruit, furniture, homework, mail, meat, milk, music,
paper, rice, soup, water
NB: Some and any can also be used with countable nouns. Any is used for questions and negatives. Some is used when the exact number is not known or is not important.
Example: Do you have any apples? Yes, we have some apples in the fridge
Articles are a, an, and the. Sometimes no article is used.
A is for singular nouns. It goes in front of consonant sounds.
An is for singular nouns. It goes in front of vowel sounds.
The is for singular or plural nouns. It goes in front of consonant or vowel sounds.
The is used for things that are already known or introduced. The is also used when the noun it precedes is the only one of its kind
Words beginning with u often have a y(ju) sound. In this case, a is used.
Y SOUND: A unicorn has a horn.
U SOUND: Amy has an umbrella.
H is often silent when it begins a word. In this case, an is used.
SILENT: An hour is a long time.
SPOKEN: Sarah has a hamster
Generic statements are sentences that provide information that is true most or all of the time.
Generic statements often use the verb Be.
Some generic statements use the verb Have.
Other generic statements use verbs that describe a state or condition.
Other state or condition verbs: look, smell, taste, sound, like, love, hate, think, believe
Subject Pronouns refer to nouns. They replace subjects.
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Possessive Adjectives show ownership or relationship. They often go before nouns.
My, your, his, her, its*, our, their
NB:Its is a possessive adjective. It’s = It is
Possessives show who or what an object belongs to.
Usually, ‘s is added to the end of a noun to show ownership of the noun coming after it.
For plural nouns that end in -s, only the apostrophe is added to show ownership.
When showing ownership for more than one noun, only the last noun takes the ‘s or the apostrophe.
For proper nouns (names) that end in -s, ‘s is added to show ownership.
Of can also be used to show ownership. In this case the noun representing the owned thing comes first.*
NB:This form is usually used when the owner is a place or thing, not a person.
This is a list of well-known as...as similes. There are more similes, of course, some common and
others less common because anyone can make a simile at any time--you too!
simile meaning comment as alike as two peas in a pod identical or nearly so as bald as a coot completely bald as big as a bus very big as big as an elephant very big as black as a sweep completely black sweep = chimney sweep as black as coal completely black as black as pitch completely black as blind as a bat completely blind may be exaggeration as blind as a mole completely blind may be exaggeration as bold as brass very bold usually in a negative sense as brave as a lion very brave as bright as a button very bright as bright as a new pin very bright and shiny as busy as a beaver very busy as busy as a bee very busy as busy as a cat on a hot tin roof very busy as calm as a millpond very calm and still usually said of water as clear as a bell very clear of a sound as clean as a whistle very clean as clear as crystal very clear as clear as mud not at all clear irony or sarcasm as cold as ice very cold as common as dirt very common, rude, vulgar usually said of a person as cool as a cucumber cool as cunning as a fox cunning as dead as a doornail dead as dead as the dodo dead, extinct the dodo is an extinct bird as deaf as a post completely deaf may be exaggeration as different as chalk from cheese very different as drunk as a lord completely drunk as dry as a bone very dry as dry as dust very dry as dull as dishwater dull, boring usually said of a person as easy as A.B.C. very easy as easy as apple-pie very easy as flat as a pancake completely flat as free as a bird very free to go anywhere as fresh as a daisy very fresh as gentle as a lamb very gentle usually said of a person as good as gold very good and obedient usually said of a person as happy as a lark very happy usually said of a person as hard as nails very tough in character of a person as hot as hell very hot as hungry as a bear very hungry as hungry as a wolf very hungry as innocent as a lamb innocent, not worldly-wise usually said of a person as large as life conspicuously present as light as a feather very light as light as air very light as mad as a hatter completely crazy as mad as a hornet very angry as nutty as a fruitcake completely crazy as obstinate as a mule very obstinate, stubborn as old as the hills very, very old as pale as death very pale or white in the face of a person as plain as day very clear as poor as a church mouse poverty-stricken as poor as dirt poverty-stricken as proud as a peacock very proud as pure as snow pure and innocent as pure as the driven snow pure and innocent as quick as a wink very quick(ly) as quick as lightning very quick(ly) as quick as silver very quick as quiet as a church mouse very quiet as safe as houses very safe, secure as scarce as hen's teeth very, very scarce irony (hens have no teeth) as sharp as a razor very sharp as sick as a dog very sick as sick as a parrot very sick as silent as the dead completely silent as silent as the grave completely silent as slippery as an eel slippery, evasive of a person as slow as a snail very slow as slow as a tortoise very slow as smooth as silk very smooth as snug as a bug in a rug in a very comfortable position humorous as sober as a judge sober as solid as a rock solid as solid as the ground we stand on solid as sound as a bell very clear of a sound as sour as vinegar very sour as steady as a rock very steady as stiff as a board completely stiff as straight as an arrow straight an arrow flies straight as strong as an ox very strong as stubborn as a mule very stubborn, obstinate as sturdy as an oak very strong and solid as sure as death and taxes absolutely certain to happen as tall as a giraffe very tall as thin as a rake very thin as timid as a rabbit very timid as tough as leather very tough as tough as nails very tough often said of a person as tough as old boots very tough often said of a person as welcome as a skunk at a lawn party not welcome at all irony or sarcasm (skunks stink) as white as a ghost very pale or white in the face of a person as white as a sheet pure white as white as snow pure white as wise as Solomon very wise King Solomon as wise as an owl very wise |
Kuelezea maana ya vihisishi
Hutumiwa kuonyesha hisi au hisia ya msemaji kidhihirisha
Kutunga sentensi akitumia vihisishi alivyopatiwa
Vivumishi ni maneno yanayotumiwa kuelezea zaidi kuhusu nomino
Neno linalotumiwa kuunganisha neno na neno, sentensi na sentensi, wazo na wazo
Kutoa mifano tofauti ya viunganishi
Kijineno kinachotokana na kuambatanisha A na herufi tofauti kwa kutegemea ngeli
Jedwali
Ngeli A-unganifu
A – WA wa - wa
KI – VI cha - vya
LI – YA la - ya
U – I wa - ya
U – ZI wa- za
I – I ya - ya
U – U wa - wa
U – YA wa - ya
YA – YA ya - ya
I – ZI ya - zi
KU kwa - kwa
PAKUMU pa – pa , kwa – kwa, mwa - mwa
Huhusu nomino pamoja na vimilikishi vyote vitatu
Mifano
Baba + yake = babake
Dada + yake =n dadake
Nyanya + yenu = nyanyenu
Shangazi + yake = shangaziye
Kaka + yako = kakako
Mjomba + yake = mjombake
Maneno yanayotumiwa kuuliza maswali
Mifano
Neno linaloeleza jinsi kitendo kilivyotendeka au kufafanua zaidi kuhusu kitendo
Aina za vielezi
Mifano
Wakati mahali namna
Leo nyumbani taratibu
Kesho darasani harakaharaka
Juma ijayo Nairobi ghafla
Mtondogoo machoni kivivu
Takriri au shadda ni maneno yanayotumiwa kutilia mkazo au kusisitiza jambo
mifano ya takriri
amba ni kitenzi kisaidizi kinachorejelea mtendwa au mtendaji kwa kutambulisha ama kueleza zaidi ya jambo fulani
kirejeshi –o hutumika badala ya AMBA
o-rejeshi na AMBA havitumiki pamoja
mfano
Kuku ambaye alitaga ni mkubwa
Nomino | Ngeli | Amba- | o-rejeshi |
Kuku |
A-WA |
Ambaye-ambao |
Ye-o Cho-vyo Lo-yo O-yo Yo-zo O-zo Yo-yo O-oO -yo Yo -yo Ko Po Ko MO |
Kirejeshi –o cha awali na kirejessho o- cha tamati
Kufafanua jinsi ya kuambisha o rejeshi tamati na awali
o-rejeshi awali hutokea kabla ya mzizi wa kitenzi –o- rejeshi tamati hutokea mwishoni mwa sentensi
Kitenzi | o-rejeshi awali | o- rejeshi tamati |
Kimbia Kula Kuwa Kua |
Anayekimbia Anayekula Anayekuwa Anayekua |
Akimbiaye Alaye Awaye Akuwaye |
Kiainishi –ndi ni kishirikishi cha kukubali kwa msisitizo
Huambatanishwa na viwakilishi nafsi au virejeshi ili kutilia mkazo
Hutumia o-rejeshi kwenye vitenzi
Nafsi
Ndi + mimi = ndimi
Ndi + wewe = ndiwe
Ndi + yeye = ndiye
Ndi + si = ndisi
Ndi + nyinyi = ndinyi
Ndi + wao = ndio
o- rejeshi
ndi + ye = ndiye
ndi + o = ndio
Ni kiainishi cha kutilia mkazo
Huambatanishwa na viwakilishi nafsi au virejeshi ili kuleta msisitizo wa kukanusha
Nafsi
Si + mimi = simi
Si + wewe = siwe
Si + yeye = siye
Si + sisi = sisie
Si + wao = sio
o- Rejeshi
A –WA si + yeye = siye si + o = sio
KI – VI si + cho = sicho si+ vyo = sivyo
Kiunganishi NA huambatanishwa na kiwakilishi nafsi kuonyesha PIA NA PAMOJA NA
Hutumiwa pamoja na 0-rejeshi
Nafsi
Ngeli Na + o- rejeshi
A – WA na+ye = naye nao
KI –VI na + cho = nacho navyo
LI –YA na + lo = nalo nayo
U – I na + o = nao nayo
U – ZI na + o = nao nazo
I – I na+ yo = nayo nayo
U – U na + o = nao nao
U – YA na + o= nao nayo
YA – YA na +yo = nayo nayo
I – ZI na + yo = nayo nazo
KU na + ko = nako
PAKUMU na+po na+ko na+mo
Hivi ni vihusishi vya mahali
Hutumiwa kuonyesha kuwapo kwa kitu kilichotajwa mahali Fulani
Ngeli hubadilika hadi PA KU MU
Kuhimiza kuwa ni kosa kutumia hivi vihusishi pamoja
Kuambatanisha nomino na vivumishi
Vivumishi | Darasa | darasani |
Viashiria Vimilikishi Ote Oote Enyewe Enye Ingine Sifa |
Hili, hilo, lile Langu, lako,lake Lote Lolote Lenyewe Lenye Jingine Zuri, jema, baya Eupe, eusi Halina |
Hapa, hapo, pale |
Usemi halisi ni maneno yalivyotarajiwa na msemaji mwenyewe
Usemi taarifa ni ripoti au maelezo yakitolewa na mtu mwengine kutoka kwa msemaji halisi
Kueleza jinsi ya kubadilisha usemi
Usemi halisi usemi taarifa
leo siku hiyo
Jana siku iliyopita/tangulia
Kesho siku ijayo
Viashiria hapa hapo au pale
Vimilikishi vya karibu ake
Mbali kidogo ako
Nafsi ya kwanza ni nafsi ya tatu
Wakati ta, ki nge
Kunyambua ni kurefusha mwisho wa vitenzi katika hali tofauti
Katika kauli ya kutendeka vitenzi humalizika kwa ‘ka’
Kitenzi kauli ya kutendeka
Vuka vukika
Sahau sahaulika
Maliza malizika
Bomoa bomoka
Kula kulika
Lala lalika
Lima limika
Pika pikika
Soma someka
Fagia fagilika
Kitenzi tendesha kauli ya kutendeshwa
Lala laza lazwa
Pika pikisha pikishwa
Kimbia kimbiza kimbizwa
Rudi rudisha rudishwa
Toa toza tozwa
Ota otesha oteshwa
Oa oza ozwa
Soma somesha someshwa
Maneno katika hali ya ukubwa huwa ni kukipa kitu ukubwa usio wa kawaida na pia maneno katika hali ya udogo ni kukidunisha kitu kuliko hali ya kawaida
Ngeli pia hubadilika katika hali ya ukubwa na kuwa LI- YA ,na katika hali ya udogo huwa KI – VI
Njia tofauti za kubadili maneno katika ukubwa na udogo
Kudodosha – mw, ny na kutia j
Mfano
Kudodosha herufi moja na kutia ji
Mfano
Kudodosha ki na kutia ji
Mfano
Kuongeza ji bila kudodoa chochote
Mfano
Kutia j kwa nomino zinazoanza kwa irabu
Mfano
Hutahiniwa kwa namna tatu
Mwanzo, mada na tamati au kijalizio
Iwapo ni mada,jadili au fafanua ikiwa una uwezo
Iwapo ni tamati, jalizia kwa maneno uliyopewa
Iwapo ni mwanzo, endeleza kisa moja kwa moja
Simulia kisa kinachooana na maudhui
Methali za wema, Usaidizi wa Rafiki na Udugu
MsamiatI na Mapambo
Miundo ya maumbo
Kupokea methali
Tamati
Chanzo cha matatizo
Alipovunja ungo/baleghe
Alipovuka kizingiti cha lango la shule, chuo kikuu ___________ maisha yake yaliingia ufa
Alopowachagua marafiki vichwa maji/nyamafu _______________
Alianza kujipalia makaa kama chachandu pweza
Mambo yalianza kumwendea tenge/shote/shoro/mvange/msobe msobe/upogoupogo
Kufilisika – hana be wala te , hana kazi wala bazi/hana hanani, fukara fukarike
Kushikwa – kuhaha na kugwaya, kutweta na kuhema, pumzi juu juu
Alitamani dunia ipasuke na kummeza mzima mzima
Kamasi ilimtonatona puani kama matone ya mvua
Alinaswa/tiwa vituku/pingu/lishwa kalenda
Aibu – shikwa na haya/soni
Iva uso
Vunja uso
Kichwa kifuani kama kondoo
Teseka – alikula mumbi/mavi/kwata
Alifunzwa na ulimwengu usiokuwa na huruma
Kitumbua kiliingia mchanga
Alitekwa bakunja/pubazwa na
Urembo/fedha/sura/jamali
Vipokezi vya methali
Yakini ________________
Taibu __________________
Ama kweli __________________
Chambilecho wahenga ________________________
Wahenga na wahenguzi ______________________
Nakubaliana na wazee wa kale _______________________
Utekaji nyara
Mapambo
Uzuri wa siku/mtu – siku ilikucha vizuri/upepo mwanana
Umande ulimeremeta metumetu kama nyota angani
Ndege walikorokocha na kughani lahani nzuri
Nwele zake za nyufa., kiuno cha nyigu, meno ya mchele, pangika kama lulu
Sauti nyororo kama ya ninga/mwewe/kinanda/hurulaini wa peponi
Mwendo wa dalji/twiga wa savanna
Kutosikia nasaha
Juhudi zangu za kumwonya/kumnasihi ______________________
Ziligonga mwaba/paramia mwamba/ambulia pang’anda/tupwa kapuni
Udekezaji – alimwengaenga/alimlea kwa tunu na tamasha
Kumwasa motto kulikuwa jambo tukizi/nadra/dimu
Akawa haskii la mwadhini wala la mteka maji msikitini
Akatia maskio komango/nta/pamba
Kuwa sikio la kufa lisilosikia dawa/cha kuvunja ambacho hakina rubani
Tamaa
Hamu kubwa ya kupata kitu, jambo, au hali Fulani
Visawe – uchu, ashiki, shauku, hamu, ari, nia, hanjamu, nyege, ukware, ghaidhi,
raghba
Methali za tamaa
Tamaa mbele mauti nyuma
Mkamia maji hayanywi, akiyanywa humsakama koo
Mwenye pupa hadiriki kula tamu
Mpanda farasi wawili hupasuka msaba/mwaranda
njia mbili zilimshinda fisi
Mwangata mbili moja humponyoka
Mchovya asli hachovyi mara moja
Mtaka yote huksa yote
Usiache mbachao kwa msala upitiapo
Methali za uzuri wa nje
Uzuri wa mkakasi ndanikipande cha mti
Sihadaike na rangi tamu ya chai ni sukari
Nyumba nzuri si mlango, ingia ndani
Kikulacho ki nguoni mwako
Ibilisi wa mtu ni mtu
Uzuri wa kuya ndani mabuu
Vyote viowevu si maji
Maudhui
Marafiki hadaa – ndumakuwili/mzandiki
Kutoaminiana katika ndoa
Ahadi za uongo – mchezo wa karata
Urembo ambao ni handaa
Mjadala ni mazungumzo baina ya watu kuhusu mada au hoja kuu upande mmoja hupinga huku mwingine ukiunga mkono
Huhusu mazungumzo juu ya mada Fulani
Mfano:
Huhitaji mtahiniwa kuunga mkono hoja moja na kasha kuipinga katika aya inayofuata au kuunga mkono na baadaye kuzipinga hoja zake.
Kuna sehemu nne kuu
Mada huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa kulingana na swali
Utangulizi huhusu kufafanua mada na kutolea mifano
Mwili huhitaji kufafanuliwa kwa hoja
Kila hoja iwe katika aya yake
Hitimisho mtahiniwa huhitajikakutoa changamoto au ushauri
Kuna namna tatu za kuandika insha hii
Usiandike chini ya hoja sita
Toa msimamo wako kwa mwandishi
Insha hizi hutumia viunganishi vya kuongezea
TEKNOLOJIA
Ni maarifa ya kisayansi yaliyowekwa katika matumizi ya vifaa, vyombo, mitambo na zana mbalimbali.
Teknolojia inaweza kutumika kwa njia ainati
Mawasiliano
Vyombo vya mawasiliano kama tarakilishi, magazeti, simu
Utafiti
Wataalamu wamevumbua/wamegundua dawa za dwele
Mashine/mitambona vyombo vya kurahisisha kazi
Mitambo ya kuchunguza hali ya anga
Dawa za kuzuia mimba
Ukiona vyaelea vimeundwa
Elimu
Vyombo na vifaa vingi hutumiwa shuleni
Mitambo na vifaa vya utafiti
Matumizi ya mitandao
Kanda za video
Elimu ni bahari
Elimu haitekeki
Usalama
Zana za vita hutumiwa hutulinda dhidi ya maadui
Donge nono hupatikana baada ya kuuza vifaa
Nyua za umeme na ving’ora
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
Kilimo na ufugaji
Pembejeo-mbegu, mbolea, dawa
Mashine za kulimia, kunyunyuzia maji
Mashine za kukama ng’ombe
Ukiona vyaelea vimeundwa
Tembe na tembe huwa mkate
Usafiri
Vyombo vya usafiri vya majini, angani na nchi kavu
Huenda kwa kasi ya umeme
Huokoa wakati
Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
Madhara ya teknolojia
Tamati
Michezo ni jumla ya shughuli za kujifurahisha, kujichangamsha,kujiburudisha au kupoteza wakati
Kuna michezo ainati kama vile
Riadha
Ni jumla ya michezo ya viungo vya mwili kama kukimbia, kuruka
Kuna mbio za masafa
Msamiati
Kandanda/kambumbu/soka /gozi/mpira wa miguu
Mapambo na maumbo
Methali
Mada
Mikasa ni matukio au mambo ya kutisha yanayotokea kwa ghafal pasi ya kutarajiwa
Matukio haya yanaweza kuleta maafa, masaibu na majonzi
Mikasa hii inaweza kuwa ya moto, milipuko ya bomu, zilizala, mafuriko, ajali barabarani, mlipuko wa volkano na maporomoko ya ardhi
Yanayopaswa kuzingatiwa kwa masimulizi ni
Msamiati na mapambo
Kelele-mayowe, kamsa, usiahi
Mlipuko-mfyatuko, mwatuko, mshindo, ngurumo
Vilio-shake, kusinana, kikweukweu, kwikwikwi, mayowr
Mochari-makafani, ufuoni,
Ving’ora vya ambulensi na makarandinga
Vifusi na majivu katika majengo
Manusura na majeruhi
Huduma ya dharura
Vukuto la moto
Helikopta za kijeshi na shirika la msalaba mwekundu
Mabehewa(mabogi) yalitapakaa
Gari liliyumba yumba/lilipiga danadana
Taharuki na hekaheka
Kuuputa moto kwa matagaa
Cheche za moto zilitanda kama fataki
Paparazi walizuka/walitokea ghafla bin vu kama mizuka
Upepo ulivuma kwa ghamidha na ghadhabu
Waja walipiga mbizi ili kujinusuru
Gari liligeuzwa likawa ganda tu
Ngeu ilitapakaa na kuzagaa kote
Mizigo ilfyatuka na kuwalenga wapiti njia
Ving’ora vilihinikiza/vilitanda/vilishamiri kote
Mavundevunde ya moshi yalitanda kote
Joto lilisambaa na kuzagaa
Vilikuwa vilio si vilio, majonzi si majonzi, zogo si zogo
Methali
Vihisishi vya majuto na mshangao
La haula la kwata !
Yarabi maskini!
Ole wangu!
Masaalale!
Lo!
Uasidizi
Walitupiga jeki
Niliwatilia upendo
Niliwapa mkono
Tulisaidiana kama kiko na digali
Maiti na jeneza
Kinu na mchi
Tamati
Hakika, hakuna msiba usiokuwa na mwenziwe
Daima dawamu sitalisahautukio hilo
Matukio hayo hayatafutika kutoka tafakulini mwangu
Ninapokumbuka kisa hicho, machozi hunitiririka njia mbilimbili
Insha humhitaji kuelezea kisa kinachoonyesha huzuni na woga
Insha nyingi huhusu mikasa au masaibu kwa watu
Visawe vya mikasa ni balaa, janga , balaa, baa, visanga
Mikasa yote hutokea kama ajali
Yanayozingatiwa mahali pa mkasa
Tanbihi : mahali pa tukio – hotelini , mwituni, ofisini, kituo cha mafuta, kiwandani,
shuleni, dukakuu, barabarani, ufuoni mwa bahari, chumba cha maabara
Mapambo
Mlipuko – mfyatuko, mwatuko, mngurumo,
Ulikuwa mlipuko wa kuatua moyo/mtima, kushtua, kuogofya, kutisha
Ulikuwa mlipuko wa jiko la gesi/umeme/gari/bomba la mafuta
Kelele: usiahi, unyonge, kamsa, ukwezi, mayowe, ukwenje
Vilio vya –kusinasina, cha shake, kikweukweu kwikwikwi
Iwapo ni bomu, moto, ajali ya ndege
Moto ulirindima na kutatarisha majengo
Mabiwi/mashungi ya moto
Mavunde/mawingu ya moshi yalitanda kote
Vukuto la moto liliongezeka badala ya upepo kuvuma kwa hasira/ghamidha/hamaki/ghadhabu
Nilijitoma ndani ya nyumba kuwanusuru
Nahodha hodari haogopi moto
Kwa muda wa bana banua sehemu ile ikawa kama tanuri/joko/jehanamu
Jingo hilo liligeuzwa na kuwa majivu
Moto/nari ilifakamia majengo kama nzige wavamiavyo shamba la mihigo
Muda si muda, muda kiduchu, kutia na kutoa, fumbo fumbua,bana banua, kuku
kumeza
Punje paka kunawia mate, punda kunawia mavumbi,
Wengine walichomeka kiasi cha kutotambulika
Vilio vilinywea na sauti kuwapwelea
Tulipirikana na kupitana katika juhudi/hekaheka/pilikapilika za kuuputa moto
kuwaokoa wahasiriwa
Huzuni
Mikasa kwa jumla
Milio ya ving’ora vya makaradinga ya polisi, ambulensi, magari ya zima moto _____ tanda/tamalaki/tawala anga
Manusura/mahututi/majeruhi walipelekwa hospitalini/zahanatini
Walipewa hudum ya kwanza/ya dharura
Wafu walipelekwa mochari/ufuoni/makafari
Paparazi walizuka kama mizuka na kupeperusha picha sawia na matukio
Wanahabari walitangaza matukio ya mkasa redioni/runingani/magazetini
Wengine walisali/walipiga dua zisizoeleweka
Kwa nyota ya jaha/bahati ya mtende/kwa sudi wasamaria wema msalaba mwekundu wanajeshi zimamoto wakasaidia kuokoa
Basi lilipiga danadana na kuanguka bondeni ziwani/baharini
Tulifanya wanguwangu/himahima/chapu chapu/yosa yosa/ hala hala/mwendo wa arubili
Bila shaka tukio hilo halitafutika moyoni/sitalisahau daima dawamu
Niltamani ardi inimeze mzima mzima
Nilitamani kulia nikacheka nikalia
Machozi yaligoma
Methali
Ngoja ngoja huumiza matumbo
Chelewa chelewa utampata mwana si wako
Fimbo ya mbali haiui nyoka
Heri jirani wa karibu kuliko ndugu wa mbali
Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki
Mbiu ya mgambo ikilia kuna jambo
Mja hakatai wito hukataa aitiwalo
Ajali haina kinga wala kafara
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
Nahodha hodari haogopi moto
Furaha inaweza kutokana na matukio mbalimbali kama vile
Mada
Siku ya siku
Akidi ya kufana
Sherehe ya kukata na shoka
Siku ya ndovu kumla mwanawe
Shamrashamra za
Msamiati na mapambo
Maua ya kila nui/ainati – asmini ,mawaridi afu, nangisi
Ukumbi wa mahema , jumba kubwa ,uwanja
Vipasa sauti/mikrofoni –vilihinikiza /sheheni
Muziki wa kuongoa ongoa ulitamalaki katika anga
Vyakula – mapochopocho/maakuli yaliyotishia kuangusha meza
Vinywaji vya kila jamii yalipenyeza kisirisiri
Mkalimani/mtarijumani alitafsiri haya yote
Kiume – mtanashati
Kike – mlibwede, spoti , mrembo kama mbega
Binti alikuwa mrembo mithili ya hurulaini aliyeasi/toka peponi
Alitembea kwa mwendo wa dalji/mwendo wa twiga wa savanna
Mwanaume mrefu njorinjori /mrefu kama unju/weusi kama kaniki
Udohoudoho , chipsi, bisi, kripsi
Waja walisakata rumba/dansi/tibwirika kwa miondoko
Msafara /mlolongo wa mashangingi
Walikula kiapo/yamini/vishana pete huku shangwe
Walipigana pambaja
Pofushwa na vimulimuli vya wapiga picha
Waja walijaa furifuri
Ilikuwa dhahiri shahiri kuwa ningefua dafu
Nilidamka wanguwangu kwa kuubwaga mgolole wangu na kuanza hamsini zangu
Kuche kusiche hatimaye kulikucha
Amka bukrata kichea
Niliamka asubuhi ya Mungu
Waja walisalimiana kwa furaha na farahani
Furaha sufufu ilinitinga si kidogo
Vyakula vya kunoga na kuhomolewa viliandaliwa na wapishi wajuzi
Vicheko vilipamba moto jari moja
Watu walichangamka na kukaramka kwa bashasha
Nilivalia meli zangu mpya zilizometameta kama mbalamwezi
Utamu wa malaji ungemfanya mtu kuramba viwiko vya mkono
Methali
Hauchi hauchi huwa
Hayawi hayawi huwa
Siku njema huonekana asubuhi
Baada ya dhiki, faraja
Mtu ni watu
Mgaagaa na upwa hali wali mkavu
Tashbihi
Shirikiana kama kinu na mchi, kiko na digali, soksi na kiatu
Lazima kama ibada
Kawaida kama sharia
Bidii kama mchwa ajengaye kichuguu/kishirazi/kidurusi
Bidii za msumeno ukerezao mbao
Bidii ni duduvule agatoye gogo la mti
Kumbukumbu ni taarifa au rekodi zilizoandikwa na kuhifadhiwa
Anayeandika ni katibu au karani
Kiongozi wa mkutano huwa mwenyekiti au naibu wa mwenyekiti
Kumbukumbu ni maoni ya wote;hivyo basi katibu hafai kutoa hisia zake mwenyewe
Sehemu muhimu za kumbukumbu ni
Mada/kichwa
Mahudhurio
Ajenda
Mapambo
Thibitisho
Sehemu hii huwa na sahihi na tarehe
Baada ya kumbukumbu kusomwa na kuthibitishwa katika mkutano unaofuata mwenyekiti na katibu hutia sahihi
Umbo la kumbukumbu
Mada:herufi kubwa
Waliohudhuria
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
Waliotuma udhuru
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
Wasiotuma udhuru
_____________________
_____________________
Waalikwa
_____________________
_____________________
Ajenda
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
KUMB CCM1 1/02:
KUMB CCM 2 1/02:
Thibitisha
Mwenyekiti ________________________ (sahihi)
Tarehe ___________________________
Katibu ____________________________(sahihi)
Tarehe ___________________________
Mazungumzo ni maongezi mahojiano au malumbano baina ya mtu na mwingine au kundi moja na jingine
Mazungumzo haya yanaweza kuwa
Poroja/soga/domo-ni mazungumzo ya kupitisha wakati
Kutafuta ujumbe maalum-hufanyika kwa njia ya mahojiano
Kumdadisi au kumwelekeza mtu-baina ya mtu aliye na tajriba na Yule anayetaka msaada
Mada/kichwa
Huandikwa kwa herufi kubwa na kupigiwa ,mstari
Mfano
MAZUNGUMZO BAINA YA DAKTARI NA MGONJWA
Maudhui-hili ni lengo au kusudi la mazungumzo
Msamiati utategemea lengo la mazungumzo
Vitendo na ishara-haya yataandikwa katika mabano mfano: (akiketi, akilia, wakibisha, akicheka)
Alama za uakifishaji
Koloni( : )huandikwa baada ya jina au cheo cha mtu
Alama za dukuduku ( -------------)kwamba mazungumzo yanaendelea
Parandesi au mabano ()
Kubana maneno ambayo hayatasemwa
Alama ya hisi ( ! ) hutumiwa pamoja na viingizi kuonyesha hisia
Mfano: yarabi maskini!
Hii ni insha inayotoa maelezokuhusu jambo, mahali au kitu Fulani
FAIDA ZA ELIMU
Elimu ni irithi
Elimu ni mali ambayo haiteki
Ni almasi inayostahili kuchibwa na mtoto yeyote mwandilifu
Zamani watu waliridhi mashamba na mifugo
Elimu ni silaha na nguzo muhimu na madhubuti
Methali
Elimu ni bahari
Elimu ni taa, gizani huzagaa
Elimu ni ali ambayo adui hawezi kuiteka
Elimu maisha si vitabu
Viunganishi na mapambo
Isitoshe, elimu ni ,ali ambayo adui hawezi _____________________
Zaidi ya hayo, humwezesha mja kuhitimu _____________________
Hata hivyo, kuna wale wanaoitumia __________________________
Aidha, limu hurahisisha mawasilia ___________________________
Nahau
Tujifunge masombo/nira/kibwebwe ili ________________________
Tujikaze kisabuni _________________________
Tusiwe pweza wa kujipalia makaa kwa kutoelimika _________________________
Tujifunge masombo mithili ya _____________________ duduvule atoboaye gogo/mchwa ajengaye kichuguu
Tamati
Ningependa kukunja jamvi kwa ____________________________
Ninapofikia tamati
Jua linapoaga mikalatusi
Ninatia kitone nikitoa lulu kuwa
Pia huitwa barua ya kiofisi
Huandikwa kuhusu jambo rasmi
Huandikwa ili
Barua rasmi ina sehemu zufuatazo
Mtindo wa barua rasmi
SHULE YA MSINGI
YA LIZAR,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA,
NOVEMBA 18, 2015.
MWALIMU MKUU,
SHULE YA UPILI YA ALLIANCE,
S.L.P 2003,
KIKUYU.
Kwa Bwana/Bi – kianzo
mtajo-MINT: NAFASI YA KUJIUNGA NA KIDATO CHA KWANZA
mwili
hitimisho –
wako mwaminifu
Msamiati
Nina furaha kukuandikia __________________
Ninasikitika ninapokuandikia waraka _________________
Ningependa kuchukua fursa hii _____________
Kwa mujibu wa ilani ______________________ katika gazeti, runinga, mabango
Shule yako imetajwa na kutajika katika _________________ michezo, elimu, bidhaa bora
Shirika/kampuni imeipa kipaombela swala la _____________________
Nina nidhamu na taadhima ya hali ya juu
Vyeti vyangu pamoja na wasifu vimeambatanishwa na waraka
Nitakuwa kielelezo dhabiti kwa wenzangu
Nina talanta katika fani ya riadha _____________________
Ni matumaini yangu kuwa utaupokea waraka huu ________________________________
Huhusu kupatiana mwaliko, kujuliana hali, kufahamisha au kuarifu kuhusu jambo
Sehemu muhimu za barua hii ni
Sampuli
BIDII FAULU,
S.L.P 93,
NAIVASHA.
18-11-2015
Kwa sahibu yangu, fundi msanifu ,
Utangulizi ______________________________
Mwili
Hatima
Ni mimi wako,
Jina la mwandishi
Hotuba ni maelezo yanayotolewa ili kupitisha ujumbe Fulani
Anayetoa hotuba huitwa katibu
Umati unaosikiliza huitwa hadhira
Huanza kwa mlahaka/salamu kwa kutambua vyeo kuanzia wa juu mpaka wa chini ,
sababu ya mkutano
Alama za kunukuu hutumiwa
Hotuba inaweza kuwa ya
Mfano wa utangulizi
“mgeni wa heshima, mkuu wa elimu gatuzini, mkaguzi wa elimu, mwenyekiti na
maafisa wa elimu na wanafunzi, hamjambo?
‘Mwalimu mkuu, naibu wa mwalimu mkuu, walimu wenzangu, viranja na wanafunzi,
sabalkheri?
Mapambo
ninazo bashasha/furaha/buraha
Nimesimama kidete/tisti/imara kama chuma
Cha pua/ngarange za mvule/kiini cha mpingo
Nitawandondolea hoja zangukuanzia utando hadi ukoko,shinani hadi kileleni
Rejelea hadhira mara kwa mara – nanyi, enyi wazazi, nasi wanafunzi
Tamati
Ningependa kutia kitone/nanga/kukunja jamvi kwa msemo usemao
Ninawamiminia shukrani tolatola/fokofoko
Kwa kutulia kama maji mtungini/maziwa kitomani
Kwa kuwa lililo na mwanzo halina budi kuwa na mwisho
Ninawatakia Baraka njema za Mualana/ninawatakia mbawazi za mkawini mbingu
Ni kitu chochote kinachoathiri fahamu za mwili na afya ya mja
Mifano
Athari za dawa za kulevya
Methali
Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba
Tahadhari kabla ya hatari
utovu wa nidhamu
watumiaji husheheni matusi
hutabawali kadamnasi
kuvalia mavazi mafupi
Methali
mwacha mila ni mtumwa
usiache mbachao kwa msala upitao
kuzorota kwa uchumi
mtu binafsi hutumia njenje zote
watoto hawatimiziwi mahitaji
filisha mja- akabaki hana mbele wala nyuma
uchumi wa nchi huzorotabaada ya kutumia pesa kuwatibu wahasiriwa
husababisha uraibu
huleta wizi
husababisha uzembe
madereva kusababisha ajali
kupata magonjwa